Category: Lycia

Letoon

Letoon was the main religious sanctuary of ancient Lycia, located at the foot of Tümtüm Tepe near modern Kumluova, Turkey, about four kilometres southwest of Xanthos. Dedicated to the goddess Leto and her children, Apollo and Artemis, it served as a sacred centre for Lycia and was closely linked with the Lycian League. Unlike Xanthos, which became a political hub, Letoon was primarily a site for worship and festivals. Its archaeological remains include three temples for Leto, Artemis, and Apollo, a Hellenistic theatre, colonnaded porticoes, a sacred spring, a fountain linked to Hadrian, and an Early Byzantine basilica. Letoon was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988, along with Xanthos.

Coordinates: 36°19’55.0″N 29°17’23.0″E

The origins of Letoon date back to at least the 6th century BC, when worship centred on a natural spring at the foot of the hillside. Archaeological discoveries, including terracotta figurines and pottery, suggest that the sanctuary was originally dedicated to an indigenous Anatolian mother goddess, identified in Lycian inscriptions as Eni Mahanahi, the Mother of the Gods. She was accompanied by local water divinities known as the Eliyanas. During the Classical period, the indigenous goddess was identified with the Greek Leto, while her children, Artemis and Apollo, were worshipped under their Lycian names, Ertemi and Natri. The establishment of their cult is associated with the Lycian dynast Arbinas in the early 4th century BC.

The sanctuary was also associated with a myth recounted by Ovid in his Metamorphoses (6.313–381). According to the story, Leto arrived in Lycia with her children and attempted to drink from a pool, but local peasants prevented her from reaching the water and deliberately stirred up the mud. Angered by their behaviour, the goddess transformed them into frogs. The story became closely associated with Letoon’s sacred spring and marshy landscape, where water played a central role in religious worship.

Under Persian rule, Letoon became a significant religious and administrative centre. A key discovery is a trilingual inscription found in 1973 near the Temple of Apollo, written in Lycian, Greek, and Aramaic. Dating to either 358 or 337 BC, it records a decree by Pixodaros of the Hecatomnid dynasty establishing a cult for Basileus Kaunios and detailing priesthoods and religious ceremonies. This inscription has been vital for deciphering the Lycian language and is housed at the Fethiye Archaeological Museum.

Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Letoon entered the Hellenistic world, and its sacred precinct underwent substantial architectural development. The three temples were rebuilt in Greek architectural styles, while porticoes, terraces and a monumental entrance were constructed around them. The sanctuary became a major ceremonial centre of the Lycian League, a federation of cities with shared political institutions. Religious festivals and public gatherings brought together representatives of the Lycian communities, while decrees and honorary monuments displayed within the precinct reflected its political importance.

At the centre of the sanctuary stood three temples on a raised terrace overlooking a sacred spring. The largest was the Temple of Leto, an Ionic structure measuring approximately 32.25 × 15.75 meters, featuring six frontal columns and eleven along each side. This elaborately decorated Hellenistic temple replaced an earlier sanctuary and included a deep pronaos, a cella, and a rear chamber.

Reconstruction of the three temples.
Mosaic from the cella of the Temple of Apollo depicting symbols associated with Artemis and Apollo (Artemis’s bow and quiver and Apollo’s lyre). Dated to the 2nd century BC.

The central Temple of Artemis measured about 18.5 × 9.5 meters and incorporated a natural rock formation from an earlier sacred site within its cella. The easternmost Temple of Apollo combined Doric and Ionic styles and featured a 2nd-century BC mosaic in its cella depicting symbols associated with Artemis and Apollo. The original mosaic is preserved at the Fethiye Archaeological Museum, while a replica is displayed at the site.

The sacred area was bordered by colonnaded porticoes from the Hellenistic period that provided shelter for visitors and a space for statues and dedications. A monumental entrance led to a paved Sacred Way towards the temples. During the Roman period, these porticoes were modified, and additional monuments were erected, including the Arruntii honorary monument near the Temple of Apollo, which honours Marcus Arruntius Claudianus and his family, significant figures from Xanthos who rose to prominence in the Roman Empire.

To the north of the sacred precinct lies a well-preserved Hellenistic theatre, built in the 2nd century BC and modified under Roman rule. The semicircular seating accommodated around 7,800 spectators, divided into thirty-six rows. Two monumental entrances provided access, with the southern one distinguished by a triangular pediment. The theatre likely hosted performances related to the sanctuary’s religious festivals and the Lycian League.

During the Roman Imperial period, a monumental fountain known as the Nymphaeum of Hadrian was added at the southwestern corner of the precinct. It featured a semicircular colonnaded portico overlooking a sacred spring and a central chamber dedicated to the imperial cult, which once housed a statue of Hadrian.

Plan of the Hadrianic nymphaeum at Letoon, showing the semicircular colonnaded portico surrounding a large basin, the central chamber dedicated to the imperial cult containing a statue of Hadrian, and the adjoining Hellenistic nymphaeum with its artificial grotto.
Source: Laurence Cavalier, Réflexions sur la circulation sous les portiques du Létôon de Xanthos, Fig. 2.

As Christianity spread during Late Antiquity, the sanctuary’s pagan functions diminished, and a three-aisled basilica was constructed, reusing materials from earlier buildings. The church included an apse, a baptistery, and mosaic pavements, but it changed during the Byzantine period and was largely abandoned by the 7th century AD.

French archaeological teams began investigating Letoon in the early 1960s, revealing its temples, theatre, and Roman monuments. Excavations continue under Turkish direction, enhancing the understanding of its religious evolution from indigenous Anatolian cults to Greek, Roman, and Christian worship. Today, Letoon is recognised as one of Lycia’s most significant archaeological sites.

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The Hellenistic theatre, built into the slope of Tümtüm Tepe during the 2nd century BC.
The theatre underwent a major Roman-era reconstruction in the 2nd century AD, likely triggered by a regional earthquake around AD 141.
The theatre’s seating area comprised 36 rows, divided into upper and lower sections, and could accommodate approximately 7,800 spectators.
The monumental southern entrance to the Hellenistic theatre. The vaulted passage, or vomitorium, provided access to the seating area and was crowned by a triangular pediment.
The remains of the western portico, built during the Hellenistic period, were modified under Roman rule to provide a sheltered space for religious gatherings and the display of statues and honorary monuments.
General view of the sanctuary. The temples were arranged side by side within the sacred precinct, overlooking the sanctuary’s sacred waters.
The sanctuary was built around a sacred spring and was dedicated to Leto and her children, Artemis and Apollo. The temple of Apollo is in the foreground, the temple of Artemis is in the middle, and the temple of Leto is in the background.
The Temple of Leto was the largest of the three temples and was built in the Ionic order.
The Temple of Leto stood on a stepped platform and was surrounded by thirty columns, of which three partially reconstructed shafts remain standing. The foundations are now partly surrounded by water from the sanctuary’s sacred springs.
Two Ionic capitals with fluted column drums from the Temple of Leto. The temple was constructed during the Hellenistic period and featured a peristyle of thirty Ionic columns.
The Temple of Artemis, situated between the temples of Leto and Apollo. Measuring approximately 18.5 × 9.5 metres, the building incorporated a natural rock formation within its cella, associated with an earlier phase of worship.
The Temple of Apollo occupied the eastern side of the sacred precinct. Built over an earlier sanctuary, the Hellenistic building combined Doric and Ionic elements and featured a mosaic pavement decorated with symbols of Apollo and Artemis.
The Temple of Apollo.
Replica of the Hellenistic mosaic pavement from the Temple of Apollo, dating to the 2nd century BC.
The three panels depict the bow and quiver of Artemis, a radiating floral motif and the lyre of Apollo. The original is preserved in the Fethiye Archaeological Museum.
View of the three temples. The Temple of Leto occupies the foreground, with its stepped platform and partially reconstructed Ionic columns. To its right are the remains of the smaller Temple of Artemis and, further east, the Temple of Apollo.
Architectural fragments from the three temples.
A decorated architectural block from the porticoes, featuring a rosette on the left and a ribbon-adorned bucranium (bull’s head) on the right.
Remains of the Arruntii honorary monument at Letoon, erected in the late 1st or early 2nd century AD against the rocky hillside southeast of the Temple of Apollo.
The Arruntii honorary monument’s impressive pedestal measures 6.62 meters in length and once held statues honoring notable members of the Arruntii family from Xanthos, including Marcus Arruntius Claudianus, one of the earliest Lycians to join the Roman Senate.
Greek honorary inscriptions and statue bases associated with the Arruntii family monument. The inscriptions commemorated members of one of the most influential families of Roman Lycia.
The semicircular basin of the so-called Nymphaeum of Hadrian. The monumental fountain complex featured a curved colonnaded portico overlooking the water and a central square chamber dedicated to the imperial cult, which once housed a statue of Hadrian. Photo:
Remains of the Early Byzantine basilica at Letoon, built during Late Antiquity south of the three temples. The three-aisled church incorporated architectural materials reused from the earlier pagan sanctuary.

Links:

Bibliography:

  • Bryce, T. R. (1986). The Lycians, Volume I: The Lycians in Literary and Epigraphic Sources. Copenhagen.
  • des Courtils, J. (2003). Ksanthos ve Letoon Rehberi. Istanbul.
  • Metzger, H., ed. (1979). Fouilles de Xanthos VI: La stèle trilingue du Létôon. Paris.
  • Çevik, N. (2021). Lykia Kitabı: Arkeolojisi, Tarihi ve Kültürüyle Batı Antalya. Ankara.
  • Yenel, A., & Bahçeci, M. (2020). “Site Management Strategies for UNESCO World Heritage Sites: The Case of the Letoon Sanctuary in Turkey.” Athens Journal of Tourism, 7(4), 227–258. https://doi.org/10.30958/ajt.7-4-3
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Xanthos

Xanthos (Lycian: Arnña) was one of the most important cities of ancient Lycia, situated on a rocky plateau overlooking the Xanthos River (modern Eşen Çayı), near the village of Kınık in southwestern Turkey. The geographer Strabo (14.3.6) described Xanthos as the largest city in Lycia; it served as a major political and cultural centre for centuries. Its archaeological remains include monumental Lycian tombs, a theatre, agoras, a colonnaded street, fortifications and Byzantine churches, reflecting the successive Lycian, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Together with the nearby sanctuary of Letoon, Xanthos was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988.

Coordinates: 36°21’22.0″N 29°19’07.0″E

The origins of Xanthos date back at least to the 8th century BC, although people had inhabited the region much earlier. The city is generally identified with Arnña, a name preserved in the Lycian language. Homer mentions the Xanthians in the Iliad and associates them with Sarpedon, the Lycian leader who fought alongside the Trojans. By the 6th century BC, Xanthos had become one of Lycia’s principal cities, occupying a strategic position above the fertile Xanthos River valley.

In antiquity, the city became famous for its inhabitants’ resistance to foreign conquest. According to Herodotus (1.176), when the Persian general Harpagus invaded Lycia around 545 BC, the Xanthians resisted the Persian forces and, facing defeat, reportedly set fire to their citadel, killing their families and destroying their possessions before making a final attack. Herodotus records that only eighty families, absent from the city at the time, survived. A similar episode occurred during the Roman civil wars in 42 BC, when Brutus besieged Xanthos after the assassination of Julius Caesar. According to ancient accounts, many inhabitants again chose death over surrender.

During the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Xanthos was governed by local Lycian dynasts under Persian overlordship. This period saw the construction of some of the city’s most remarkable funerary monuments, including the Harpy Tomb, the Inscribed Pillar and the Nereid Monument. These structures combined traditional Lycian forms with Greek artistic influences and elements of Persian royal iconography. The richly decorated tombs of Xanthos provide important evidence for Lycia’s political and cultural identity during the Classical period.

The Tomb of Payava. Dating to approximately 375–360 BC, this elaborately decorated Lycian tomb belonged to a local aristocrat named Payava.

After Alexander the Great’s campaigns, Xanthos entered the Hellenistic world and later came under Roman influence. The city remained an important member of the Lycian League, a federation of cities with shared political institutions and a common religious centre at Letoon. In AD 43, during Claudius’s reign, Rome annexed Lycia and established it as a province, later administratively uniting it with Pamphylia.

Xanthos prospered under Roman rule, when its urban centre was enlarged and reorganised. The city acquired a monumental theatre, colonnaded streets, public squares, porticoes and commercial buildings. The West Agora, originally laid out during the Hellenistic period, was remodelled with colonnades and surrounding rooms, while the principal streets were developed with covered walkways and shops.

The theatre, located on the northern slope of the Lycian Acropolis, demonstrates the city’s architectural evolution. Originally built during the Hellenistic period, it was extensively rebuilt after a major earthquake in AD 141. During the Antonine and Severan periods, the seating and stage were enlarged to accommodate about 4,500 spectators. In the late 3rd century AD, it was modified for gladiatorial events, reducing capacity to around 2,800 spectators by removing the lowest seating rows and adding a protective wall around the orchestra.

Map of Xanthos by Rjdeadly.

The Roman city was organised around a network of paved streets, including the Decumanus Maximus, which connected the West Agora to a monumental double-arched gateway known as the Dipylon. Shops and porticoes lined both sides of the street, and archaeologists discovered freshwater and drainage channels beneath them. These installations illustrate the development of the city’s infrastructure between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD.

During Late Antiquity, Xanthos became an important Christian centre. Several churches were constructed, including the large East Basilica, which served as the city’s cathedral and episcopal church. Built in the 5th century AD, the basilica measured about 74 metres long and included a three-aisled nave, an atrium, a baptistery, and richly decorated mosaic floors. After 6th-century AD earthquakes, repairs were made, and the building gradually fell out of use in the 7th century AD. Later, people used parts of the structure for burials, and they established a smaller church within the complex in the 11th century.

The Lycian Acropolis also changed substantially during the Byzantine period. Later buildings replaced or incorporated earlier structures, while defensive walls protected the hill. Sections of the ancient city continued to be occupied until the medieval period, although much of Xanthos had been abandoned by the 13th century.

Xanthos was brought to international attention in the 19th century by the British explorer Charles Fellows, who visited the site in 1838 and 1843. Later, numerous sculptures and architectural elements, including the reliefs of the Harpy Tomb, the Nereid Monument, and the Tomb of Payava, were transported to Britain and are now preserved at the British Museum. Scientific excavations began in 1950 under the French Archaeological Mission, and Turkish archaeological teams have continued to investigate the city’s urban development, monuments, and inscriptions.

The Harpy Tomb reliefs on the north side show a warrior giving his helmet to a seated bearded man, flanked by harpies carrying human figures. The scenes depict seated figures receiving gifts from standing figures, with winged female harpies at both ends carrying childlike figures. Dating to around 480 BC, the reliefs are located in the British Museum in London.

Today, Xanthos preserves an exceptional record of Lycian civilisation and its transformation under successive Mediterranean cultures. Its monumental tombs remain among the most distinctive examples of ancient Anatolian funerary architecture, while the Roman and Byzantine buildings illustrate the city’s continued importance long after the Lycian dynasties disappeared.

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A group of Lycian rock-cut tombs, their façades carved to imitate wooden houses with projecting beams and framed doorways. Rising above them is a monumental stone pillar, while a smaller house-type tomb stands in the foreground.
Rock-cut funerary façades, carved directly into the limestone outcrop. Their recessed doorways, horizontal beams and carefully sculpted frames reproduce elements of traditional Lycian timber construction.
Fragmentary funerary monument consisting of large stone blocks arranged on a stepped base. The remains stand against the backdrop of the Eşen Valley.
Interior of a rock-cut burial chamber, with stone burial platforms carved along the walls. These chambers could accommodate multiple burials, often from members of the same family.
The Lions Tomb, the earliest known sarcophagus at Xanthos, dates to the late 5th century BC. The reliefs on the north face depict two lions attacking a bull.
The Dancer’s Tomb features dancing figures on the short sides of the lid and is dated to the mid- to late 4th century BC.
The Lycian Acropolis offers a view of ancient building remains. This acropolis was the city’s first fortified core and features structures from the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods.
The theatre, located on the northern slope of the Lycian Acropolis, was originally built during the Hellenistic period, likely in the 2nd century BC.
After an earthquake in AD 141, the theatre was significantly rebuilt during the Imperial period. The remaining seating and stage primarily showcase these later modifications.
The Roman theatre accommodated approximately 4,500 spectators at its greatest extent. In the second half of the 3rd century AD, they removed the lowest rows of seats, enlarging the orchestra for gladiatorial contests and animal hunts. A protective wall separated the spectators from the arena, reducing the theatre’s capacity to about 2,800.
The Roman stage building eventually rose to two storeys and was decorated with columns and architectural ornament. Although much of its superstructure has collapsed, the surviving masonry preserves the original arrangement of the building.
The Roman theatre, with the Harpy Tomb (right) and a Lycian pillar sarcophagus (left) rising above the upper rows of seating.
The Harpy Tomb (right) and a Lycian pillar sarcophagus (left). The Harpy Tomb, dating to around 480–470 BC, consists of a tall monolithic pillar topped by a burial chamber decorated with reliefs depicting enthroned figures, attendants and winged creatures carrying small human figures.
Situated between the Lycian Acropolis to the south and the northern acropolis, the West Agora occupies an approximately rectangular area measuring 85 × 75 metres. Originally established in the Hellenistic period, it was enlarged and remodelled under Roman rule, with colonnaded porticoes enclosing the square and rooms along its northern side.
The Inscribed Pillar (Xanthos Obelisk). Dating to approximately 425–400 BC, this monumental pillar stood on a stepped base and originally supported a sculptural monument associated with a Lycian dynast.
The inscriptions on the Xanthos Obelisk, written in Lycian, Milyan and Greek, commemorate the achievements of a ruler generally identified as Kherei. The monument preserves one of the longest surviving texts in the Lycian language and is of exceptional importance for the study of Lycian history and epigraphy.
The Decumanus Maximus (Colonnaded Street). This paved Roman street connected the West Agora with the monumental Dipylon gateway. Shops and covered porticoes lined both sides, while freshwater and drainage channels ran beneath the pavement.
Fragment of a Greek inscription, likely from a statue base honouring the Roman Emperor Claudius, who annexed Lycia in AD 43, displayed along the Decumanus Maximus.
The Dipylon, a monumental double-arched gateway, stood at the junction of the principal streets and marked the entrance to the Decumanus Maximus.
Greek honorific inscription dedicated to Hadrian Olympios, Father of the Fatherland, saviour of the world, set up by “the city of the Xanthians, metropolis of the Lycian nation.”
The East Basilica, built in the 5th century AD. This large Christian basilica served as the cathedral and episcopal church of Xanthos. Measuring approximately 74 × 29 metres, the complex included a porticoed atrium, a three-part narthex, a central nave with side aisles, a stepped synthronon and a tetraconch baptistery.
Remains of Early Byzantine houses on the Lycian Acropolis overlooking the fertile Eşen River valley.
During the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the acropolis was extensively transformed as earlier Lycian, Hellenistic and Roman buildings were demolished or incorporated into new residential structures. The houses were built over the remains of the ancient settlement and featured mosaic and brick-paved floors, cisterns and water channels.
Remains of stone structures on the Lycian Acropolis. The acropolis preserves evidence of the city’s early Lycian occupation, including buildings and fortifications dating to the Classical period. Many of these structures were later altered or incorporated into new constructions.
The monumental Lycian pillar sarcophagus and the Harpy Tomb overlooking the West Agora, Xanthos.
Remains of the Nereid Monument, erected around 390–380 BC. This monumental tomb was probably built for the Lycian dynast Arbinas (Erbbina). The monument was discovered by Charles Fellows in the 19th century, and much of its surviving architecture and sculpture was later transported to the British Museum, where it has been partially reconstructed.
The Nereid Monument resembled a small Ionic temple raised on a high podium, decorated with sculpted friezes depicting battles, processions and scenes of royal authority, together with statues of Nereids. Only the foundations and scattered architectural remains survive at the original site.
The Vespasian Arch. A monumental Roman gateway near the southern entrance was dedicated to the emperor Vespasian (AD 69–79). It stood close to an earlier Hellenistic gateway and formed part of the city’s monumental southern approach.

Links:

Bibliography:

  • Dönmez, A. (2022). The Xanthus Theatre Cavea: Reconstruction of Early Empire Period. Phaselis, 8, 53–72.
  • Herodotus. Histories, 1.176.
  • Strabo. Geography, 14.3.6.
  • Demargne, P., Metzger, H., et al. Fouilles de Xanthos. Paris, 1958 onwards.
  • MacDonald, W. L. (1976). Xanthos. In The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton University Press.
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