Claros

Claros was an ancient Greek sanctuary situated on the coast of Ionia between Smyrna and Ephesus. It belonged to the city of Colophon and was a significant centre of prophecy, as in Delphi and Didyma. The sanctuary contained a temple and oracle of Apollo, who was worshipped here as Apollo Clarius. People from far and wide visited this place to seek guidance and prophecies until the end of the 4th century AD. Hadrian visited the sanctuary and contributed considerably to the temple’s reconstruction.

Coordinates: 38°00’18.0″N 27°11’34.0″E

The cult centre at Claros was a complex devoted to multiple deities, including Artemis, Leto, Dionysus, and Apollo. It was part of the territory controlled by the Ionic city of Colophon, one of the oldest of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The religious area was constructed around a freshwater spring during the Archaic Period, but there is evidence of a pre-Greek use of the site with a possible Hittite origin. The first known construction is a round altar that dates back to the second half of the 7th century. It was later replaced by a large rectangular altar measuring 14.85 × 6.05 m. In the middle of the 6th century AD, a marble temple was built for Apollo around the spring. Artemis also had her own precinct and a smaller altar measuring 3.50 × 150 m. Later, in the 3rd century AD, construction began on the new altar and the new temple of Apollo, which had a crypt-like adyton from where the oracle delivered his prophecies.

Claros, alongside Didyma, was one of the two major oracular centres in western Asia Minor during the Graeco-Roman period. However, the origins of cultic activity Claros is the oldest in the region. The earliest mention of Claros is in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (see here) from the 7th century BC. During this period, several altars and a marble temple dedicated to Apollo were constructed near a sacred spring. Later, in the 3rd century BC, various significant structures and cult statues of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto were built, along with a larger Doric Temple of Apollo.

Larger-than-life seated statue of **Homer** from the Sanctuary of Apollo at Claros.
İzmir Art and Sculpture Museum.

During the 7th century BC, an ancient Sacred Way connected Claros with Colophon and Notion. This route was used for several centuries, at least until 294 BC. The road was decorated with Kouros and Kore statues on both sides. Near the main altar, an impressive array of statues honouring Roman officials lined the Sacred Way in Claros. Some of the individuals commemorated included Pompey, Cicero, and Octavian, who was likely honoured after his Actium victory. Other honorees were Sextus Appuleius II, the half-nephew of the Roman emperor Augustus, L. Valerius Flaccus, the governor of Asia in 61/2, his father (consul 86 BC), and his uncle C. Valerius Flaccus, who was Asia’s governor in the 90s.

Kouros statue from the Sacred Road that connected Claros with Colophon and Notion. Dated to the Archaic Period.
Izmir Museum of History and Art.

The oldest piece of information about the function of the Temple of Apollo in Claros dates back to the Hellenistic Period. According to the Greek historian Pausanias, Alexander the Great had a dream in which he was directed to establish a new city at the base of Mt. Pagos (Smyrna). The Smyrnaeans asked for the interpretation of the dream from the Apollo oracle at Claros, and the oracle replied with a prophetic phrase: “Thrice and four times happy will those men be, who are going to inhabit Pagos beyond the sacred Meles.” As a result, New Smyrna was founded, becoming one of the most prosperous cities in Asia, while the old city of Smyrna was abandoned.

The oracular sanctuary of Apollo Clarius was a sacred place for devotees and visitors seeking divine wisdom and insight. According to inscriptions and literary texts, there were special nights on which consultations would occur, and people would gather at the temple of Apollo. During these nights, a procession of consultants would take place, sacrifices would be made, and hymns would be sung to seek answers from the divine. The Lesser and Greater Claria were two significant festivals that took place every fifth year in the Hellenistic Age, attracting visitors and generating substantial revenue for the sanctuary.

During the early days of the Roman Empire, the Clarian oracle became very popular, attracting a large number of visitors who sought its counsel. The prophecies were highly regarded by rulers, individuals and cities, and their fame was worldwide. For instance, some towns addressed famine and field infertility issues, others about coping with plagues or pirate and bandit attacks. Individuals and delegations from the entire Eastern Mediterranean and beyond sought the oracle’s guidance at Claros.

Head of Apollo from Claros. Dated to the Late Hellenistic Period.
Izmir Museum of History and Art.

In AD 18, Germanicus visited the oracle during his travels in the East and received a shocking prediction. The seer predicted that he would soon meet his end. This prediction came true just a year later when he passed away in Syrian Antioch (Antakya) at the young age of 34. Tacitus, a Roman historian who had likely visited the same oracle himself ten years prior as proconsul of Asia, described the procedure for receiving an oracle. He was surprised to discover that, unlike Delphi, no priestess was present but a male priest who spoke on behalf of Apollo (Tac. Ann. 2.54).

The oracular sanctuary consisted of various buildings, such as the temple itself, an altar, treasuries, and other structures that were associated with the oracle’s activities. The temple was built between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC on the site of an earlier sacred building and was completed during the reign of Hadrian. The new temple was constructed on a five-stepped platform with dimensions of 26 × 46 m and had six columns on the narrow sides and eleven on the long sides.

The rectangular-shaped temple had sides measuring 26 and 46 meters. There were 11 columns on the longer sides and six on the shorter ones, all in the Doric order. The diameter of the drums of these columns was up to 1.6 meters, and archaeologists have discovered seven capitals and around 150 drums. The temple complex included a sacred spring and a cave where the oracle would deliver prophecies in a trance-like state. After an oracle was pronounced, the believers wrote a votive and memorial text referencing the priests and praising Apollo. Over time, hundreds of inscriptions covered the temple’s columns, steps and walls, making it one of the largest corpus of surviving Greek inscriptions.

Model of the Temple of Apollo Clarius and the Altar.

Numerous monuments were constructed during the Roman Period, and recent excavations have revealed that the sanctuary underwent significant modifications during the first half of the 2nd century AD. Hadrian played a vital role in restoring and completing the temple. A fragmented dedication of the temple of Apollo mentions Hadrian as the dedicator. The emperor visited Ionia in AD 124 and 129. The decision to complete the temple at Claros was likely taken during one of these visits, while the terminus post quem for the completion of the temple is December 135. Hadrian is known to have supported oracles, and during his reign, Delphi saw a short-lived revival via his patronage. Hadrian’s visit to Claros suggests his profound interest in religious and cultural sites, and he likely participated in rituals, made offerings, and sought advice from Apollo’s oracle.

Restitution of the Hadrianic inscription.
Αυτοκράτωρ Καΐσ[αρ θεού Τραιαν]οΰ Παρθικού ύός θεού Νέρβα υίω[νός Τραϊανός Αδριανός Σεβαστός, άρχιερεύς μέγιστος,] δημ[αρχικής εξουσίας το (–), αύ]το κράτωρ το δε[ύτερον, ύπατος] το (τρίτον), ‘Ολύμπιος και Πανελλήν[ιος και Πανιώνιος — ]

The eponymous prytanis (local magistrate) of Colophon was responsible for the efficient functioning of the shrine and simultaneously served as the eponymous official of Claros. Two inscriptions evidence that Hadrian agreed to be the eponymous prytanis. Lucius Aelius Caesar, Hadrian’s first adopted son, also held the prytany.

Claros gained increased prominence after the Antonine Plague of AD 165-180 when many eastern cities consulted the oracle in response to the disease. The oracle must have been closed, along with the other Greek oracles, in AD 395, when the emperor Theodosius banned its operation. Later, a strong earthquake destroyed the temple and the remaining buildings.

The sanctuary was discovered in 1907 by a German scholar named C. Schuchhard. Excavations started in the 1950s under the direction of Louis Robert, who uncovered the oracular chamber below the temple and several inscriptions related to its operation. Today, the ruins of Claros offer a glimpse into the religious practices and beliefs of the ancient world, preserving the legacy of this once-thriving sanctuary dedicated to the god Apollo. Above the ground, one can see the foundations of the temple and fragments of the colossal sculptures of a seated Apollo, accompanied by Leto and Artemis, which were over seven meters in height.

PORTFOLIO

The Proplyon. The monumental gate that led into the sanctuary.

The Katagogeion (hostel) is located south of the Sanctuary of Apollo. It contains twenty rooms, including a kitchen and a bathhouse. The Katagogeion was an inn for visitors who sought consultations with the oracle.

A well-preserved exedra, a semicircular recess where visitors sat and conversed, with lion claw ornamentation.

View of the ruins of the Doric Temple of Apollo from the south, with the base that held the colossal statues of Artemis, Apollo, and Leto in the foreground.

View of the ruins of the Doric Temple of Apollo from the southwest.

View of one of the two arched subterranean sacred rooms.

View of one of the two arched subterranean sacred rooms with the colossal statues of Apollo, Artemis and Leto in the background.

View of the ruins of the Doric Temple of Apollo from the southeast.

Part view of the ruins of the Doric Temple of Apollo.

Hellenistic building dedicated to Artemis.

Three fragments from Hadrian’s dedication to the Temple of Apollo Clarios. Dated to between December 135 and December 136.
ΑΥΤΟΚΑΤΩΡΚΑΙΣ
ΚΡΑΤΩΡΤΟΔΕ

Two fragments from Hadrian’s dedication to the Temple of Apollo Clarios. Dated to between December 135 and December 136.
ΟΥΠΑΡΘΙΚΟΥΥΟΣΘΕΟΥΝΕΡΒΑΥΙΩ
ΤΟ.Γ.ΟΛΥΜΠΙΟΣΚΑΙΠΑΝΕΛΛΗΝ

Square honorary monuments of the Flaccus Family and L. Valerius Flaccus and honorary columns of Sextus Appuleius and Menippos.

Corinthian column dedicated to Sextus Appuleius, son of Octavia, stepbrother to the emperor Augustus, and proconsul of Asia.

Greek inscription dedicated to Sextus Appuleius. The inscription reads:
‘People honours Sextus Appuleius who is the founder of the city and is elected as proconsul for the second time.’
Ό δήμος
Σέξτον Άππολή-
ιον τον άνθύπατον
το δεύτερον, κτίσ-
την γεγονότα της
πόλεως.

Hellenistic Sundial dedicated to Dionysus. The original is in the Izmir Archaeological Museum.

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March 23, 2024April 7, 2024 by followinghadrian Categories: IoniaTags: Apollo, Claros, Ionia, Ionian League, Klaros 1 Comment

Teos

Teos, an ancient Greek city located in the Ionia region on the west coast of Anatolia (present-day Turkey), was founded in the 8th century BC during the Ionian colonisation. Strategically situated on the coast, it benefited from its proximity to the sea, which allowed it to become a thriving maritime and trading centre. Teos was one of the twelve cities forming the Ionian League, a confederation of Greek city-states established after the Meliac War in the mid-7th century BC. Throughout its history, the Ionian city underwent periods of prosperity and cultural development. Teos is home to the largest temple of Dionysus in the ancient world, designed by the famous architect Hermogenes of Priene.

Coordinates: 38° 10′ 38″ N, 26° 47′ 6″ E

Teos was once a thriving seaport along the Ionian coast, boasting two excellent harbours. According to tradition, the city was initially established by Athamas, who brought Minyan colonists from Orchomenus (Paus. 7.3.6). They were followed by Ionians (when the city was re-founded by Nauklos), Boeotians (with Geres as founder) and Athenians (with Apoikos and Damasos as founders). Teos was a member of the Panionium, an Ionian sanctuary devoted to Poseidon Helikonios located on Mount Mycale and the gathering place of the Ionian League. The city developed rapidly and soon reached the stage where colonists from Teos settled in Phokaia (Phocaea). When the Persians seized the cities of Ionia in 546 BC, some of Teos’ inhabitants abandoned their hometowns. They established significant colonies at Abdera in Thrace and Phanagoreia on the Asian side of the Bosporus, while it participated in the establishment of the Greek trading station at Naukratis in Egypt.

Greek Expansion in the Ancient Aegean.
Map created by Netchev, Simeon for World History Encyclopedia (link).

Teos took part in the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule (499-493 BC), which led to the Greco-Persian Wars and the first invasion of Greece. After its liberation from Persian domination, Teos joined the First Athenian League and remained a member until 412 BC. Later, the city became a part of the Delian League and paid an annual tax of 6 talents, demonstrating Teos’s thriving economy at that time.

After the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Teos came under Spartan and Persian control. Persian rule was eventually overthrown with Alexander the Great‘s conquests. During the Hellenistic period, Teos flourished as a cultural and economic centre. According to Strabo (14.644), a sanctuary consecrated to the Macedonian king was founded in Teos, and a festival known as the Alexandreia was also held. When the kingdom of Alexander fell, the city was successively occupied by Antigonids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies.

In 190 BC, the allied Roman and Rhodian fleets defeated the Seleucid navy of Antiochus III, commanded by Hannibal, in the bay of Teos. As a result of the defeat, the city of Teos, which stood on Antiochus’ side, surrendered to the Romans. Through the Peace of Apamea of 188 BC, the Kingdom of Pergamon gained control of the city. From 129 BC onwards, Teos became part of the Roman province of Asia.

Teos was renowned for its production of wine, olive oil, and marble. This contributed significantly to its wealth and influence in the region. It was also a centre of artistic and intellectual activity, attracting poets, philosophers, and artists from across the ancient Greek world. Anacreon, the famous poet, who makes an interesting appearance on the provincial Roman coinage (see here), hailed from Teos, while Epicurus reportedly studied in the city for three years. In the Roman period (late 1st century AD), Tiberius Claudius Philistes was the most eminent Teian citizen. He was honoured as the ‘new Athamas’, the first mythical founder of the city (see here). Philistes served as priest of Dionysus and held several other official positions in Teos. He spent most of his wealth on public benefactions.

The ruins of ancient Teos can still be visited today, offering a glimpse into the city’s rich history and legacy as a prominent Ionian city in antiquity. The ruins include a harbour, temples, an Agora, a bouleuterion, and a Hellenistic theatre located at the foot of the Acropolis. The Temple of Dionysus is the most significant building in Teos and was the largest temple dedicated to the god of wine in the ancient world, measuring 18.50 meters by 35 meters. The temple was also associated with the celebrated synod, an organization of actors related to the cult of Dionysus, who established their headquarters in Teos in the late 3rd century AD.

Reconstructive drawing of the Temple of Dionysus at the ancient city of Teos (1782).
CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER, Gabriel Florent Auguste de. Voyage pittoresque de la Grèce, Paris, J.-J. Blaise M.DCC.LXXXII [=1782].

The Temple of Dionysus was built in the Ionic order, entirely of marble. It had eleven columns on the longer side and six on the shorter side. Hermogenes was mentioned as the architect of the temple in Vitruvius’ Ten Books on Architecture (III.3.6-8, IV 3.1). The temple was constructed in the last quarter of the 3rd century BC, as indicated by an inscription related to Antiochus III. However, the Hellenistic temple was destroyed, possibly due to an earthquake in 14 BC. It was later reconstructed twice, first during the reign of Augustus and later during the reign of Hadrian, possibly after another earthquake in the mid-1st century AD. A fragmentary inscription on an architrave (Teos 75) attests to Hadrian’s responsibility for restoring the temple towards the end of his life. The emperor visited Ionia in AD 124, 129, and 131; thus, the decision to restore the temple at Teos was likely taken during one of these visits.

Some of the columns of the Temple of Dionysus have been restored, while parts of the relief frieze and an acroterion are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum in Izmir.

The reliefs from the Temple of Dionysus in the garden of the Izmir Archaeological Museum.

Another temple, located in the agora, was dedicated to the goddess Roma and the emperor Augustus. During excavations in the southeast corner of this temple, a marble portrait head of Antinous was discovered. This discovery could be related to the imperial cult or associated with the last visit of the Emperor in AD 131 (Kadioğlu, 2022).