Patara

Patara was one of the main cities of Lycia, located at the mouth of the Xanthos River and closely associated with the fortunes of its harbour. From early on, it became a major port, linking the interior of Lycia to maritime trade routes across the Mediterranean. It later became an important centre of the Lycian League, reflecting its political and economic significance. Under Roman rule, the city expanded, acquiring monumental buildings, baths, and a theatre. However, its prosperity gradually declined as the harbour became silted, cutting it off from the sea. By the Byzantine period, its significance had diminished, and the site was ultimately abandoned. Much of the city remained buried beneath sand until modern excavations began to uncover it once again.

Coordinates: 36°15’58.4″N 29°19’02.0″E

Patara’s early history is closely tied to both myth and geography. Ancient tradition connected its foundation to Patarus, a son of Apollo, reflecting the city’s long-standing association with the god and his oracle. Historically, Patara’s earliest mention dates back to the Bronze Age, when it is thought to have been known as Pttara in Hittite records, indicating its presence as an established settlement long before the classical period. The city later developed as a key Lycian settlement at the mouth of the Xanthos River, giving it access to both inland routes and the Mediterranean. This advantageous location allowed Patara to emerge as an important harbour and trading centre from an early date, linking the fertile Xanthos valley with wider networks of exchange.

By the Classical and Hellenistic periods, Patara had become one of the principal cities of Lycia. Its growth was influenced by both commerce and its religious significance. The city developed a more defined urban character, with its layout organised around the harbour and surrounding hills. Evidence of early public buildings and necropolises indicates a settlement that was economically active and structurally established. During the Hellenistic period, Patara was renamed Arsinoe, most likely under the Ptolemaic rulers who briefly controlled parts of Lycia. The name honoured Arsinoe II, the sister and wife of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, reflecting the common Hellenistic practice of renaming cities after members of ruling dynasties. However, the name did not persist. The city soon reverted to Patara, the name by which it is known in both earlier tradition and later historical periods.

Under Roman rule, Patara reached the height of its importance and development. Following the annexation of Lycia in AD 43, the city became the administrative capital of the province and a central hub for both governance and trade. Its harbour remained a key asset, linking the interior of Lycia with the wider Mediterranean and ensuring continued prosperity. This period saw extensive urban expansion, with the construction of monumental buildings including baths, a theatre, colonnaded streets, and the Bouleuterion. Patara also played a significant role within the Lycian League during this time, reinforcing its political status, while its connections to the imperial network, particularly routes linking to Constantinople, further secured its position as one of the region’s leading cities. Patara was recognised as the metropolis (chief city) of Lycia and held the prestigious status of a high-priestly centre and twice as neocorus (temple warden) of the Lycian nation. This status was confirmed by inscriptions from the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.

Hadrian visited Patara in AD 131, and his reign was marked by significant imperial attention to the city. This is confirmed by an inscription on the eastern facade of the horreum (granary) located on the western part of the city (TAM II 397). Additional inscriptions specifically honour Hadrian and his wife Sabina, associate them with Zeus of Olympus (TAM II 409) and ‘New Hera’ (TAM II 412). Furthermore, other inscriptions honour Hadrian as “saviour and builder” (TAM II 410).

HORREA IMP. CAESARIS DIVI TRAIANI PARTHICI F. DIVI [NERVAE NEPOTIS TRAIANI HADRIANI AUGUSTI
(Horrea of the commander-in-chief Caesar, son of the divine Traian, who defeated the Parthians, grandson of the divine Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and Augustus).

During the Byzantine period, Patara remained an inhabited and active city, retaining its role as a bishopric and maintaining connections within the Christian world. However, its fortunes gradually declined due to broader changes affecting the region. Repeated raids, coastal instability, and disease weakened the city over time. At the same time, the continued silting of the harbour further reduced its economic importance, cutting it off from maritime trade. Although occupation persisted for several centuries, Patara steadily diminished in scale and significance, and by the medieval period, it had been largely abandoned, its remains gradually buried beneath sand and sediment.

Systematic excavations at Patara began in the late 20th century and have since revealed a city that had long lain hidden beneath sand. As work progressed, major structures emerged, including the theatre, baths, colonnaded street, and the Bouleuterion, many of them remarkably well preserved due to their burial. Among the most significant discoveries has been the Roman lighthouse, originally built under Nero near the ancient harbour. In recent years, this structure has been carefully reconstructed using anastylosis, with its original blocks reassembled to restore its form. The result is a rare example of a Roman lighthouse brought back to life, standing once more as a marker of Patara’s former maritime importance.

Another significant discovery was the Stadiasmus Patarensis, a monumental Roman inscription uncovered in the aftermath of a fire in Patara in the summer of 1993. Erected around AD 45, it served as both an honorary monument for Emperor Claudius and an official record of the Roman road network in the newly annexed province of Lycia. The monument listed numerous roads, cities, and distances (in stadia), functioning as a provincial itinerary. For instance, the inscription included routes such as “from Patara to Xanthos: 56 stadia,” and continued with other cities and distances, allowing reconstruction of the ancient Lycian road network. The blocks were found scattered and reused in later construction, with some still embedded in the Byzantine wall.

A 22-kilometre-long aqueduct supplied Patara with fresh water from springs in the surrounding hills, carrying it across the landscape to the urban centre and harbour district. Like many Roman aqueduct systems in Asia Minor, it combined channels cut into the bedrock with masonry conduits and elevated sections that maintained a steady gradient over long distances. One of its most fascinating features is the Delikkemer, a 200-metre-long pressure bridge that carried water across the valley from springs in the hills toward the city, using an advanced hydraulic design (reverse siphon) rarely preserved so clearly in the ancient world.

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The City Gate is a triple-vaulted triumphal arch dedicated by the people of Patara to Mettius Modestus, a Roman governor of Lycia and Pamphylia during the reign of Trajan, between AD 99 and 102. It marked the formal entrance into the city from the harbour side.

Built of large limestone blocks, the City Gate consists of four massive piers connected by three vaulted passages, with the central arch wider and more prominent than those on either side. The façade was richly decorated, with niches that once held statues and architectural detailing such as metopes and triglyphs.

Evidence suggests the City Gate was integrated into the water system, with pipes running through the structure and a reservoir-like basin at its base. Beyond the gate, a broad colonnaded street led directly into the city centre.

Shops (tabernae) lining the colonnaded street just inside the City Gate. They formed a planned commercial frontage, likely with porticoes in front.

The Octagonal Pool, a carefully designed water feature located along the main street, about 50 metres south of the City Gate. Constructed from local limestone blocks, the pool was built around a central water reservoir. The pool functioned primarily as a civic water feature, likely serving both practical and decorative purposes along the street.

The Palm Grove of Leto is associated with the mythological birth of Apollo. According to ancient sources, Leto gave birth to Apollo while grasping a palm tree, making the palm grove a sacred setting tied to themes of birth, renewal, and divine presence. While later traditions placed this event on Delos, there is a long-standing suggestion that a Lycian version of the myth existed, connecting Patara itself with the story.

The Harbour Baths were constructed in the 2nd century AD at the eastern edge of the ancient harbour. This complex followed the typical design of Roman bathing architecture, featuring rooms arranged along a single axis: the frigidarium (cold room), the tepidarium (warm room), and the caldarium (hot room). The structure also included a palaestra, an open exercise area located on the eastern side, which reflects the broader social and athletic functions of the baths.

The Theatre was originally constructed during the Hellenistic period and was later restored and expanded in the 2nd century AD; it could accommodate approximately 6,000 spectators.

The theatre was built into the northern slope of Kurşunlutepe hill, using the natural terrain to support its semi-circular cavea. With a diameter of around 80 metres, it could accommodate approximately 6,000 spectators, arranged across 38 rows of seating divided by a central diazoma.

The seating was organised into two tiers, with stairways creating wedge-shaped sections, while a removable awning (velarium) once provided shade. The cavea was completed under Tiberius (AD 14-37).

The stage building (skene), about 41.5 metres long, was designed as a two-storey façade with elaborate decoration, including columns and architectural ornamentation. Access to the orchestra and stage was provided through side entrances (parodoi) and additional passageways.

A small temple stood at the top of the cavea of the theatre, dedicated to a god or the imperial cult.

The Assembly Hall of the Lycian League (Bouleuterion) was a substantial civic building that accommodated up to 1,400 people. Built on a large rectangular foundation, it combined architectural features of a council chamber with those of a small theatre, reflecting its dual function as both a political and ceremonial venue.

Originally constructed in the Late Hellenistic period, when Patara served as the capital of the Lycian League, the Assembly Hall of the Lycian League underwent several phases of modification during the Roman period. These included expansions to the seating and the addition of architectural elements such as a stoa and stage building, allowing it to function not only as an assembly hall but also as a venue for performances.

The seating arrangement in the Assembly Hall of the Lycian League included a designated area for the Lycian governors.

The Assembly Hall of the Lycian League also included an orchestra area with marble flooring and was enclosed by substantial masonry walls.

Later, in the Byzantine period, the Assembly Hall of the Lycian League was incorporated into the city’s fortifications, marking a shift from civic use to defensive purpose.

The Central Agora, with its double colonnade extending for around 120 metres and opening toward the agora. It occupied a broad open space between the Assembly Hall and the southern end of Harbour Street, forming the civic heart of the city. Although much of it has been lost, its blocks reused in later fortifications, the overall layout of this rectangular marketplace can still be traced through the remains of its surrounding stoas.

The colonnaded porticoes of the agora provided shaded walkways and spaces for commercial and social activity, linking the agora to nearby public buildings such as the theatre, baths, and assembly hall.

The Harbour Street formed the main north–south axis of the city, linking the inner harbour directly with the agora. At around 12.6 metres wide, it was one of the broadest and best-preserved streets in Lycia, flanked on both sides by colonnades approximately 6 metres wide.

Originally laid out in the Hellenistic period, the Harbour Street was later rebuilt under the Romans as a cardo, intersecting with an east–west decumanus near the Prostylos Temple and continuing southward to the harbour.

The eastern colonnade of the Harbour Street was built with granite columns, while the western side used marble and was once decorated with a geometric mosaic pavement. Behind these porticoes lay a series of shops, indicating the street’s important commercial role.

The Harbour Street remained in use for several centuries, from at least the 1st century BC until as late as the 7th century AD.

The Baths of Nero were originally constructed under Emperor Nero and later expanded during Vespasian’s reign. They are one of the largest and most significant bath complexes in Lycia.

The Corinth Temple is a well-preserved 2nd-century temple from the Roman imperial era, located near the ancient harbour. It is built on a high podium and is notable for its intact cella walls. Currently, it is unknown to which deity or emperor the temple was originally dedicated.

The Central Baths are located just east of the main street, between the larger Nero/Vespasian Baths and the Corinth Temple. Modest in scale, the complex measures approximately 12.5 by 25 metres and follows the traditional Lycian “row-type” layout, with three rectangular vaulted rooms arranged side by side along an east–west axis.

View toward the ancient harbour and lighthouse.

The Patara Lighthouse was a substantial freestanding structure that marked the entrance to the harbour, built during the reign of Emperor Nero in AD 65/66. Designed to guide ships safely into the port, it was built on a square podium, about 20 metres on each side, from which a tall tower originally rose to a height of around 26 metres.

An inscription in bronze letters once crowned the Patara Lighthouse, recording that the lighthouse was built by the governor Sextus Marcius Priscus. A second inscription refers to additional harbour works, including another lighthouse at the eastern entrance of the port, suggesting a coordinated system of maritime infrastructure (a pair of lighthouses, a pharos, and an antipharos).

Destroyed, most likely by an earthquake in the late medieval period, the lighthouse has since been carefully reconstructed using its original blocks, allowing its form to be understood once again within the landscape of the ancient harbour.

The Neronian inscription on the lighthouse of Patara, dated to Nero’s twelfth tribunician power, AD 65/66.

The Hadrianic Horreum, a key storage and distribution centre for goods arriving by sea, was built in AD 131 and dedicated to Hadrian.

The Hadrianic Horreum measured approximately 75 by 25 metres and was divided into eight long, parallel chambers separated by thick internal walls. Each chamber opens toward the harbour through high doorways, while smaller passages within connect the spaces, allowing for the controlled movement of stored goods.

The Hadrianic Horreum is preserved almost to its full height, and its interior was originally covered with barrel vaults. Its façade, though architecturally simple, is carefully articulated with mouldings, projecting lintels, and restrained decorative features that lend rhythm to the long elevation facing the harbour. Subtle details, including cornices and carved garland motifs, add refinement to what is otherwise a highly functional structure.

The tomb of Publius Pacconius Hermelas, a citizen of both Rhodes and Patara, dates back to the 1st century AD. It is located on the western edge of the harbour, just north of the Hadrianic granary and south of the stadium. Built from limestone blocks and oriented east-west, the monument stands on a substantial podium that measures approximately 19 by 14 meters. Accessed by a short flight of steps, it gives the structure an imposing appearance, like a small temple.

The Delikkemer Aqueduct, located a short distance north of Patara, formed one of the most impressive sections of the city’s aqueduct system. This monumental pressure bridge carried water across the valley from springs in the hills toward the city, using an advanced hydraulic design rarely preserved so clearly in the ancient world.

Unlike the familiar high arcaded aqueducts of the western Roman Empire, Delikkemer functioned as an inverted siphon. Water descended through stone pipes into the valley and was then forced upward by pressure to continue its course toward Patara. The structure itself consists of a long stone-built bridge with regularly spaced arches, within which terracotta and stone pipes once carried water under pressure.

The massive stone pipe blocks of the Roman inverted siphon system had a carefully carved circular opening at their centre, where pressure pipes were joined to form the sealed conduit transporting water across the valley. These blocks, cut from local limestone and scattered beside the ruined aqueduct line, provide a rare glimpse into the technical infrastructure hidden within the masonry of Delikkemer.

The masonry walls of Delikkemer were constructed from large, carefully cut limestone blocks, engineered to withstand the considerable hydraulic forces generated by the inverted siphon system. Its thick walls provided both stability and protection for the water pipes running through the top of the bridge.

May 8, 2026May 8, 2026 by followinghadrian Categories: LyciaTags: Delikkemer, Lycia, Patara, Turkey 1 Comment

Hegra

Hegra, also known as Al-Hijr or Mada’in Salih, is one of the most significant archaeological sites in northwestern Saudi Arabia. It is located north of AlUla and the ancient capital of the Dadanite and Lihyanite Kingdoms at Dadan. Surrounded by vast desert plains and impressive sandstone cliffs, Hegra is famous for its monumental Nabataean tombs, which are intricately carved into the rock. Once a thriving city during the Nabataean Kingdom, Hegra was the second most important city after Petra. The Nabataeans, originally a nomadic Arab tribe, flourished between the 4th century BC and the 2nd century AD by controlling trade routes that connected southern Arabia to the Mediterranean.

Coordinates: 26° 47′ 30″ N , 37° 57′ 10″ E

Archaeological evidence indicates that the Hegra region was inhabited long before the Nabataean period. Bronze Age funerary structures and early inscriptions suggest human activity in the area as early as the 3rd to 2nd millennium BC. The earliest known inhabitants of Hegra were the Lihyanites, who established the site as a trading station along important north-south caravan routes. The arrival of the Nabataeans in the 1st century BC marked a significant transformation for Hegra, turning it into a prosperous urban centre. As skilled traders and expert hydraulic engineers, the Nabataeans developed advanced water management systems, establishing Hegra as a key hub along caravan routes connecting Arabia with the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. During this period, particularly under the rule of Aretas IV (9 BC – AD 40), the city flourished, covering an area of 1,500 hectares. It featured a sophisticated network of wells that supported agriculture in the desert, and its inhabitants created impressive rock-cut tomb façades.

Carved from towering, honey-coloured rocks that rise from sunbaked sands, the tombs form a necropolis surrounding Hegra’s city centre. Little of the mud-brick architecture of the walled city remains, but the tombs have remarkably withstood centuries of harsh sunlight and erosion. More than 130 surviving wells, originally established by the Nabataeans, demonstrate their expertise in water management. Most of the tombs feature intricately decorated façades, providing insight into the relationships that this Arab tribal society had with other cultures, until it lost its independence to Rome in AD 106.

All the tombs (111 in total, 94 of which are decorated) date back from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, and many display carvings of eagles, mythological figures, snakes, and sphinxes. More than 30 of Hegra’s tomb façades bear inscriptions etched in the rock. They are legal texts that list the owners’ names and, sometimes, their roles in the community. They are written in the Nabataean script, a variety of Aramaic that later developed into Arabic. Some tombs serve as final resting places for high-ranking officers and their families, whose inscriptions indicate that they carried Roman military titles such as prefect and centurion into the afterlife. In addition to the tombs, chambers, shrines, niches, and other unique structures have survived.

In AD 106, the Roman Empire annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, incorporating the city of Hegra into the province of Arabia Petraea. Evidence of Roman military presence in Hegra is found in the epigraphic record. A Greek inscription refers to a painter associated with the Legio III Cyrenaica, while Greek graffiti created by soldiers from the Ala Getulorum and Ala Dromedariorum can be seen on the rocks along the ancient north-south trade route that passes by Hegra. Additionally, a monumental Latin inscription, discovered in 2003 and dated to AD 175–177, mentions the restoration of a monument, likely the city wall, with the assistance of two centurions from the Legio III Cyrenaica (source).

Latin inscription commemorating major restoration work on a rampart (defence wall) overseen by two centurions of the Third Cyrenaic Legion. Dated AD 175-177, moved and reused in the wall of a house. AE 2004, 1620

The city was not truly Romanised, however, and no forums, theatres or paved roads have been identified there. The city was primarily a military outpost. With its ramparts and many wells, it was an ideal base for the garrison guarding the border and the inland route between Syria and southern Arabia. The archaeological excavations of the last ten years have uncovered a Roman camp with baths, built in the 2nd century AD and abandoned in the 4th century AD, and a gate from the Nabataean rampart, reconstructed by the Roman army between AD 170 and 220.

By the early Islamic period, Hegra had largely been abandoned, leaving its grand façades and silent streets to the desert landscape. European explorers in the 19th century renewed scholarly interest in Hegra, and systematic archaeological research throughout the 20th and 21st centuries has greatly expanded understanding of the site. In 2008, Hegra was designated Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site, and ongoing conservation efforts continue to shed new light on this extraordinary crossroads of ancient civilisations.

The main archaeological sites in Hegra include:

The settlement area dedicated to daily life, conveniently located in the centre of Hegra, a 50-hectare site surrounded by a defensive wall and dotted with residential buildings (not accessible to the general public)
Jabal Ithlib and Ith 78, the worship area, located to the east of Hegra
The burial area where the iconic monumental tombs were carved into many large rocks (Jabal Banat, Jabal al-Mahjar, Al-Khuraymat, Al-Jadidah, Jabal al-Ahmar). There’s an interactive tomb map online that lets you zoom into each necropolis and click individual tombs (link). Not all necropoises are accessible to the general public.
The agricultural oasis, which included 130 wells, scattered in the western, northwestern and northern parts of Hegra (not accessible to the general public)

View towards the Sulaymiyya, Jabal al-Mahjar and Jabal Banat necropolises.

The tombs of Hegra are distinguished by the variety of their decorations and architectural structures, reflecting the social prestige of Nabataean families. Among the main types identified are:

Proto-Hegra Type 1 (approx. 24 tombs): Features pilasters, an Egyptian-style cornice (entablature), and two symmetrical half-crowsteps crowning the facade.
Proto-Hegra Type 2 (approx. 12 tombs): Similar to Type 1 but includes an entablature enriched by a frieze.
Hegra Type Tombs (approx. 15 tombs): Characterised by two entablatures separated by an attic.
Crowstep Tombs (One/Two Rows): Tombs featuring one row (12) or two rows (14) of stepped merlons at the top.
Half-Crowstep Tombs (8 tombs): A cornice formed by two half-crowsteps on an Egyptian-style entablature.
Arched Tombs: A unique, rare type using an arch as a crowning element.
Simple Facades: Undecorated or incomplete tombs.

Funeral practices in Hegra followed a carefully structured Nabataean ritual that began at the home of the deceased and ended in a rock-cut tomb. After death, a necklace of fresh dates was placed around the neck, and the body, naked or nearly naked, was wrapped in several successive shrouds. First, it was enveloped in a red-dyed wool shroud, then in an undyed linen shroud coated with a mixture of vegetable oils and resins, and finally in a coarser linen shroud that absorbed additional resins. These layers were secured with textile ties and enclosed in a leather shroud made from stitched pieces, with a funerary mask placed over the face. The prepared body was then carried, likely in procession with family members, to the tomb, where it was laid in the burial chamber. After the ceremony, the tomb was sealed with a wooden door or stacked stone blocks, marking the conclusion of the funerary rite.

Suggested reconstruction of an inhumation.

Archaeologists investigating the tombs carved into the Jabal Ahmar necropolis unearthed a nearly complete skeleton of a Nabataean woman in tomb IGN 117. The tomb, containing the remains of as many as 80 individuals, bore an inscription, dated to AD 60/61, identifying it as belonging to “Hinat, daughter of Wahbu,” who had built it for herself and her descendants. Analysis of her bones showed she was a woman of about 40–50 years of age and roughly 1.6 meters tall, and her burial suggested she was of medium social status. Using the well-preserved skull and modern forensic and 3D reconstruction techniques, scientists have been able to create a facial approximation of Hinat, offering a rare and tangible glimpse of an individual from Nabataean society two millennia ago.

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Qasr al Farid

Qasr al Farid, also known as The Tomb of Lihyan Son of Kuza, is a 1st-century AD tomb carved into a single huge rock. It is the most famous and the largest tomb in Hegra. The tomb is an iconic example of Nabataean funerary architecture and stands isolated. It is carved into a massif about 23 metres high and 18 metres wide, with the access platform raised approximately 4 metres above ground level.

The style of Qasr al-Farid is known to archaeologists as the “Hegra style,” but Qasr al-Farid is unique in that it is the only one with four large pilasters decorating the façade.

A triangular pediment, resting on two pilasters and topped by a single griffin statue, frames the entrance of Qasr al-Farid, above which is a plaque with a short Nabataean inscription stating that this tomb was carved for Lihyan, Son of Kuza.

The very bottom of the façade of Qasr al-Farid was never completed.

The Jabal Banat necropolis

The Jabal Banat necropolis is one of the most striking burial clusters at Hegra. It consists of 31 Nabatean tombs dating from AD 1 to 58 (Tomb IGN17 to Tomb IGN45). The tombs include fine inscriptions about the eminent figures for whom they were intended and decorations such as birds, monsters, and human faces. The largest among them is IGN 20 (16m high).

Tomb 21, Tomb of Arus son of Farwan, of the Hegra Style. According to the Nabataean inscription above the doorway, this tomb was carved by three masons: Aftah ibn Abd’Obodat, Wahbu ibn Afsa, and Huru. It was created for Arus ibn Farwan and his extended family. The inscription indicates that the tomb was completed in the 36th year of King Aretas IV Philopatris’s reign, which corresponds to AD 28.

Tomb 24, Tomb of ‘Abd ‘Obodat son of Aribes, featuring two half-crowsteps on a plain background, an Egyptian entablature composed of a cornice, a plain frieze, and an Ionic entablature with cornice and plain architrave.

Tomb 24 is the smallest of the series of grand facades in the Jabal Banat necropolis. The triangular pediment above the doorway is richly decorated and topped by an eagle statue and two urns.

The interior of Tomb 24 with grave niches.

Tomb 29, Tomb of Wushuh daughter of Bagrah. The facade features five crowsteps and two half-crowsteps, followed by an Egyptian entablature with a cornice and a plain double-register architrave, supported by angular pilasters with pseudo-Doric capitals and plain shafts. In the centre of the facade, there is a cartouche with an inscription in Nabataean characters.

Tomb 30 belongs to the Proto-Hegra 1 type and is dated to AD 35. The upper part of the facade features two typical 5-step half-crowsteps, though only 2 steps on the left and 3 on the right are partially visible. These rest on an Egyptian entablature consisting of a cornice with torus moulding and an architrave.

The facade of Tomb 30 is decorated with a face sculpture flanked by two snakes. The inscription on the architrave is not in a cartouche but is engraved directly on the surface above the left of the doorway.

Tomb 37, Tomb of Aftah, belonging to the single-row crowsteps type. The facade is rich in decorative elements, including pseudo-Doric capitals on the corner pilasters and a unique entrance decoration featuring a central rosette and two lion figures in profile.

The Jabal Banat necropolis with some Nabataean reenactors.

Tombs 39 and 40, two well-preserved tombs with medium-sized façades belonging to the proto-Hegra type 1.

Tomb 39, Tomb of Kamkam daughter of Wa’ilat, the oldest dated tomb in Hegra. The facade belongs to the type with two rows of crowsteps.

Tomb 42, belonging to the Proto-Hegra Type 2. The upper part of the façade features typical half-crowsteps, with an Egyptian entablature below consisting of a cornice and architrave, and an Ionic entablature defined by a cornice and frieze.

Tomb 44, Tomb of Kahlan the Physician, belonging to the Proto-Hegra type. It is dated AD 26/27.

The entrance to Tomb 44 is topped by a triangular pediment featuring a tympanum decorated with a bearded face with large, prominent eyes and an open mouth displaying teeth, flanked by two snakes on either side. This figure is often interpreted as either Humbaba or the god Bès. Completing the design are three acroteria: a central eagle with outstretched wings and two vases on the sides.

Tomb 45, Tomb of the Governor ‘Eidu son of ‘Ubayd, belonging to the Proto-Hegra 2 type.

The entrance façade of Tomb 45 is surmounted by a triangular pediment and tympanum decorated with a face with round eyes and a slightly open mouth, flanked by two snakes, interpreted as a representation of Medusa. The pediment is accompanied by three acroteria: a central eagle with spread wings and two lateral vases.

View towards the Jabal Banat necropolis.

The Jabal al-Ahmar necropolis

The Jabal al-Ahmar Necropolis consists of twenty-two tombs, numbered from IGN111 to IGN130.1, spread across two sectors and divided into three rocky outcrops, some of which have recently been uncovered. The remains of a 2,000-year-old Nabatean woman named Hinat were excavated from one of these tombs (read more here).

View of the eastern side of Jabal al-Ahmar Necropolis with Tombs 114 to 119.

Tombs 117, 118 and 119. Tomb 117 (left) is the Tomb of Hinat daughter of Wahbu, and features two rows of crowsteps. The tomb was constructed for a woman named Hīnat and her descendants. According to the inscription on the facade, it was carved in AD 61, i.e. the 21st year of the reign of King Malichus II.

Tombs 118, 119 and 120. Tomb 118 (left) The facade, rising about 10 meters, features two half-crowsteps, an Egyptian entablature, and decorative rosettes.

Tombs 118, 119, 120 and 121. Tomb 120 (Tomb of Taymuallahi, son of Hamala) and Tomb 121 (Tomb of Sukaynat, daughter of Murrah) are similar and follow a simple style, with a double row of Merlons on the facades. However, tomb 121 is distinguished by a single rosette carving between the two rows of merlons and by a well-preserved inscription.

Jabal Ithlib

Jabal Ithlib, located northeast of Hegra, features a complex of rock-cut structures that includes two triclinia, twenty-one sanctuaries, niches, and basins. This complex is not a necropolis; rather, it serves as a caravanserai and an entry point for caravans travelling to the necropolises and residential areas. The Ith20 triclinium (also known as IGN16 or Diwan) is situated at the entrance of the canyon in the western sector of the Ithlib massif, while the second, smaller triclinium is located further south within the massif.