Kibyra was an ancient city located on a mountainous site, spanning three prominent hills, southwest of modern-day Gölhisar, approximately 110 kilometres from Burdur in southwestern Turkey. It was important in the ancient world due to its strategic location at the intersection of the cultural regions of Lycia, Caria, Pisidia, and Phrygia, and at the crossroads of important north–south and east–west commercial routes. The city prospered and developed during the second half of the 2nd century BC, becoming the political centre of the Kabalia or Kibyriatis region. Most of the buildings standing today were constructed in Roman times, following the city’s destruction by an earthquake in AD 23.

Coordinates: 37°09’36.4″N 29°29’21.1″E

Geographer Strabo (13.4.17) first mentions Kibyra in ancient sources, noting that the city was founded by the Lydians and that its inhabitants spoke four languages: Pisidian, Solymian, Greek, and Lydian. Initially established near Uylupınar Lake, it was relocated to its current site in the 3rd century BC, likely for security reasons. Geographically, Kibyra lies within the Kabalis region (later known as Kibyratis), a cultural crossroads where Lycia meets Pisidia, Caria, Lydia, and Phrygia. The population of Kibyra was ethnically and linguistically diverse. Archaeological and epigraphic evidence from nearby mounds, such as Yusufça and Sorgun, shows that the area has been continuously occupied since the Late Chalcolithic and Early Iron Ages.

Kibyra rose to prominence during the Hellenistic period, coming under the control of the Kingdom of Pergamon in the early 2nd century BC under Eumenes II. Shortly thereafter, it became the leading member of a tetrapolis, known as the Kabalian League, a federation of four cities: Kibyra, Boubon, Balboura, and Oenoanda. The league was dissolved by the Roman commander L. Licianus Murena in 82 BC. Following this, Kibyra was incorporated into the Lycian League and became the administrative centre of the Roman province of Asia. After a devastating earthquake in AD 23, Emperor Tiberius provided financial aid and tax exemptions for its recovery, leading to the city being renamed Kaisareia Kibyra.

Under Roman rule, Kibyra reached its peak of prosperity. It became well-known for its agriculture, animal husbandry trade, and, particularly, its skilled production of ironwork, leather, and pottery. Kibyra was architecturally impressive, built across three hills and featuring monumental structures that highlighted its wealth and significance. Among these structures was a stadium measuring 185 meters in length, capable of accommodating around 10,000 spectators. The theatre, partially hewn into a hillside, had seating for about 9,000 people and showed evidence of a velarium and inscriptions referring to local clans and economic exchange rates. Adjacent to the theatre stood the Odeon, a multifunctional indoor theatre and council hall seating approximately 3,600. This venue was beautifully decorated with coloured marble, statues, and a distinctive Medusa mosaic in opus sectile on its orchestra floor. It is considered one of the best-preserved civic structures in Lycia. Additionally, nearby Byzantine baths featuring hypocaust systems demonstrate the region’s continuous urban development.

The most important finds in Kibyra are a body of architectural reliefs and stelae depicting gladiatorial contests, discovered during excavations by the Burdur Museum on the road to the necropolis east of the stadium. These friezes, which belonged to three different monumental tombs of munerarii, depict various aspects of gladiatorial games, including duels between gladiators and the hunting of animals. Along with reliefs on locally produced oil lamps, these friezes indicate that gladiators played an important role in the social life of Kibyra and that the stadium was used not only for athletic competitions but also for gladiatorial fights and venationes.

The city was repeatedly damaged by earthquakes, notably in AD 417, when a quake severely damaged the stadium and other structures. Despite these setbacks, Kibyra remained a prominent urban centre until its eventual abandonment after the 7th century AD.

PORTFOLIO

The stadium. Dated to the late 2nd to early 3rd century AD, the stadium was strategically located on the slopes of the main hill, integrated into the urban fabric of Kibyra.

The stadium features a single U-shaped sphendone design, accommodating approximately 10,000 spectators.

The stadium had 21 rows of seats on the western side, carved into bedrock, while the eight rows on the eastern side were supported by a retaining wall. The stadium was damaged by earthquakes, notably in AD 23 and AD 417, leading to its eventual abandonment.

The stadium of Kibyra was accessed from the north through a propylon featuring five arched entrances. The propylon stood 7.94 meters high and spanned 25.35 meters in width. The estimated date of the stadium is based on an inscription found on the propylon and dated to AD 198-211.

In-situ relief on the wall of the stadium, likely representing a tropaion (“trophy”) relief showing a male figure with a helmet, breastplate and greaves between two round shields with spears.

The excavated 40m-long main street near the Upper Agora, which ran from the stadium to the theatre. It was approximately 800 m long, extending east to west, and was formed of stairs due to the elevation.

The colonnaded street of the Upper Agora with stoas and shops on both sides.

The colonnaded street of the Upper Agora.

A fountain along the colonnaded street of the Upper Agora.

The tholos-nymphaeum on the third terrace of the Upper Agora, unearthed during the 2016 excavations. The circular, temple-like fountain structure was dedicated to the nymphs and associated with the city’s water supply system. It was decorated with columns, embossed friezes, and sculptures.

A bronze lion head water spout on the Tholos-Nymphaeum.

The Tholos-Nymphaeum consists of a circular structure with a central water system made of blocks and two surrounding circular pools. The central structure is covered with a conical roof carried by columns.

The Tholos-Nymphaeum was most likely constructed after the earthquake in AD 23. It underwent three phases of use: during the first phase, it featured a single pool and a circular structure with a central water system. A second pool was likely added in the late second and early third centuries AD.

Terracotta water pipes surrounding the Tholos-Nymphaeum. The excavations revealed that the structure was not only a fountain but also a castellum that supplied water to its immediate surroundings.

The third terrace of the Upper Agora with the Tholos-Nymphaeum.

View of the Theatre and Odeon from the Upper Agora.

The Theatre, built on a natural slope and seating around 8,000 people, dates to the Hellenistic period, but the upper cavea and the two-storey stage building were added in the 2nd century AD.

Traces of wooden posts used to carry a velarium to protect spectators from the sun and rain can be seen on the cavea.

The Odeon with its colonnaded forecourt paved with black-and-white mosaics.

The Odeon was constructed in the 1st century AD and embellished in the 3rd century AD.

The cavea of the Odeon has a capacity of 2,500.

The orchestra floor of the Odeon with the Medusa mosaic.

Kibyra’s captivating Medusa mosaic was made in opus sectile, a technique using thin marble slabs. Unearthed in 2009, the mosaic dates to the 2nd or 3rd century AD.

The foundations of the temple of the imperial cult (Kaisarion), a temple dedicated by Quintus Veranius, the governor of Lycia in the Claudian period, to the emperor’s worship. It was built during the reign of Claudius (AD 41-54) and dedicated to Emperor Augustus (as Zeus Patroos Augustus) and his wife Livia (as Nea Demeter Augusta).

Dedicatory inscriptions and architectural fragments from the temple of the imperial cult.

The Roman Bath Complex, dated to the 1st century AD.

The Golhisar plain at the foot of Kibyra.

Basilica Church, a religious building with three naves, a triconch apse, and burial chambers, dating to the 5th century AD.

Burial chambers inside the Basilica Church, dated to the 5th century AD.

The Main Road leading to the Stadium has a necropolis area on both sides, primarily consisting of sarcophagi.

A necropolis on one side of the Main Road leading to the Stadium. Here, two sets of friezes depicting gladiators in various actions were found, belonging to two monumental gladiator tombs that, along with other tombs.

The gladiator reliefs from the necropolis of Kibyra in the Burdur Museum.

The Eastern Necropolis, a burial area with different types of tombs built during the Roman Period.

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Bibliography:

Berns, C., & Ekinci, H. A. (2015). Gladiatorial games in the Greek East: a complex of reliefs from Cibyra. Anatolian Studies, 65, 143–179. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24878381
Kileci, Senkal & Önen, Nihal. (2024). Restoration Works in Kibyra during the Claudian Period: New Inscriptions, τὰ σεβαστὰ ἔργα of the Lycian Governor Quintus Veranius and New Inscriptions Concerning His Family.
Dökü, F. Eray, and M. Can Kaya. “The Architecture and Function of the Stadium of Kibyra”. Adalya, no. 16 (June 2013): 177-201.
Karabacak, Volkan & Yönlü, Önder & Dökü, Eray & Kıyak, Nafiye & Altunel, E. & Özüdoğru, Şükrü & Yalciner, Cahit Caglar & Akyuz, H. Serdar. (2013). Analyses of Seismic Deformation at the Kibyra Roman Stadium, Southwest Turkey. Geoarchaeology. 28. 531-543. 10.1002/gea.21456.

November 9, 2025November 10, 2025 by followinghadrian Categories: Lycia, TurkeyTags: Cibyra, Kibyra, Lycia, Turkey Leave a comment

Olba, later Diocaesarea, is an ancient Seleucid city in Rough Cilicia in Turkey’s rugged Eastern Mediterranean coastline. In the Hellenistic period, the city was the centre of worship of Zeus Olbios, whose sanctuary was located about 4 km to the west.

Coordinates: 36°35’10.5″N 33°57’48.7″E

Erected during the reign of the Seleucids, the temple, Corinthian in style, is the oldest peripteral temple (6×12 columns) in Asia Minor. Other monuments from the Hellenistic period include a 22m-high tower and a mausoleum. The Roman city of Diocaesarea later developed in the 1st century AD around the temple devoted to Zeus Olbios. Its ruins today lie partly within the grounds of the village of Uzuncaburç (Turkish for ‘high tower,’ referring to the Hellenistic tower) and its immediate surroundings.

The most important Roman buildings on the site date from the 1st to the 3rd century AD and include a theatre, a nymphaeum, an aqueduct, and many tombs dug in the rock. The city is entered through a monumental gate, of which five columns have survived. Then a colonnaded street runs alongside the temple of Zeus Olbios and leads to the temple of Tyche. To the northwest, a three-arched Roman gate leads out of town.