Hierapolis is an ancient Phrygian city located in Pamukkale, within the provincial borders of Denizli in southwestern Turkey, about 10 km north of the ruins of Laodicea. The city was probably established by Eumenes II of Pergamon in 190 BC at a crossroads connecting the inner region of Anatolia to the Aegean Sea to the west. Founded at the site of an ancient cult, Hierapolis became a sacred city (hieron) and was dedicated to Apollo Lairbenos. Its chief religious festival was the Letoia, named after the goddess Leto. Hierapolis was renowned for its sacred hot springs, which were believed to be associated with Pluto, the god of the underworld. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1988, Hierapolis has become a popular tourist destination, celebrated for its extraordinary landscape shaped by calcite-rich waters.

Coordinates: 37° 55′ 30″ N, 29° 7′ 33″ E

Hierapolis is often said to have been founded by Eumenes II, the king of Pergamum. However, it is possible that the city was actually established earlier in the 3rd century BC by the Seleucid Dynasty. There are two theories regarding the origin of its name. The first theory, attributed to Stephanus of Byzantium, claims that the name Hierapolis, which means “holy city,” was chosen due to the religious traditions that developed in the area. The second theory suggests that the town was named after Hiera, the wife of Telephus, who was the mythical founder of Pergamum.

Perched on a terrace created by cascading white travertine pools, the hot springs of this city were believed to possess healing properties. People came from far and wide to bathe in the mineral-rich waters, seeking cures for various ailments. After being ceded to Rome in 133 BC, the original Hellenistic city transformed into a prosperous Roman town and became one of the wealthiest cities in Asia Minor. Although it was severely damaged by an earthquake in AD 60, the city was extensively rebuilt and later reached its peak of significance during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.

In the 1st century AD, Hierapolis experienced significant construction activity, primarily driven by the emperors of the Flavian Dynasty. By the 2nd century, notable structures such as the theatre and the monumental Agora were built. In AD 129, Hierapolis was likely visited by the emperor Hadrian, who had previously returned the aurum coronarium, a substantial amount of money given by the city to commemorate his accession to the throne. Under Emperor Septimius Severus, the city continued to prosper, and it was granted its first and only neocoria, a privilege allowing the construction of temples dedicated to the emperor, along with various administrative benefits, by Caracalla, who visited the city in AD 215.

Visualisation of Hierapolis in the 3rd century AD (Prof. Francesco D'Andria). — Visualisation of Hierapolis in the 3rd century AD (Prof. Francesco D’Andria).

Hierapolis city had a significant Jewish population, particularly in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, which facilitated the early spread of Christianity. According to tradition, the apostle Philip’s martyrdom occurred in Hierapolis in AD 80, and a church dedicated to him was built in the 5th century. With its several churches, Hierapolis became an important religious centre in the Byzantine years.

Hierapolis was first excavated in the late 19th century, with systematic excavations commencing in 1957 under the auspices of the Italian Archaeological Mission. This mission continues to conduct research, as well as maintenance and restoration work on the archaeological site. The Museum of Hierapolis opened in 1970, located in the Roman baths, to display its findings. The remains of Hierapolis cover a large area and are particularly impressive, featuring baths, temples, a monumental arch, nymphaea, necropolises, and a theatre.

PORTFOLIO

The nothern Necropolis of Hierapolis, one of the best preserved cemeteries of Asia Minor. It was also one of the biggest ones, since more than 1,200 graves have been excavated in an area larger than 2 km. — The Northern Necropolis of Hierapolis is one of the best-preserved necropolises of Asia Minor. It was also one of the biggest, with more than 1,200 graves excavated in an area larger than 2 km.

The oldest tombs date from the Hellenistic period (1st-2nd c. BC). They are tumuli, whose vaulted burial room was founded on a circular wall at the bottom; they sometimes had a separate entrance. The vault of the roof was covered with soil. — The oldest tombs date from the Hellenistic period (1st-2nd century BC). They are tumuli whose vaulted burial chambers were founded on a circular wall with a roof covered in soil.

The funerary architecture of the necropolis of Hierapolis had variety of burial architecture — The Northern Necropolis featured an exceptional variety of burial architecture, ranging from simple sarcophagi to mortuary chapels with gabled roofs, and even structures that imitated houses.

Northern acropolis, Tomb No. 166 (Tomb of the Gladiators). The tomb takes its name from from the travertine slab above the entrance bearing images linked to gladiatorial combat: an amphora for the oil offered as prize to the victor, a trident for combat, a circular shield. — Tomb No. 166 (Tomb of the Gladiators). The tomb takes its name from the travertine slab above the entrance, which bears images linked to gladiatorial combat: an amphora for the oil offered as a prize to the victor, a trident for combat, and a circular shield. (2nd-3rd centuries AD)

Relief with gladiatorial scenes, beginning of the 3rd century AD, from the Northern Necropolis of Hierapolis, Hierapolis Archaeology Museum, Turkey — Relief with gladiatorial scenes. Dated to the beginning of the 3rd century AD. From the Northern Necropolis. Hierapolis Archaeology Museum.

The monumental tomb N°. A18 set on a high staircase surrounded by buttresses. Dated to the Flavian era, it had two antechambers. — The monumental tomb N°. A18 is set on a high staircase surrounded by buttresses. Dated to the Flavian era, it had two antechambers.

The Northern Necropolis, Tomb No. 176 with a distinct facade that recalls the appearance of a house with a row of windows, 2nd-3rd centuries AD. — The Northern Necropolis. Tomb No. 176 has a distinct facade that recalls the appearance of a house with a row of windows (2nd-3rd centuries AD).

The Northern Necropolis beyond the city walls of Hierapolis.

The Bath - Basilica located at the northern entrance to the city, built as a bath complex in the 2nd century AD and coverted into a Basilica church in the 6th century AD. — The Bath-Basilica, situated at the northern entrance to the city, was originally constructed as a bath complex in the 3rd century AD and later converted into a church in the 6th century AD.

Frontinus Gate, the monumental entrance to the Roman city, dating to 84 or 86 AD on the basis of a dedication to Domitian on the gate's facade. — Frontinus Gate is the monumental entrance to the Roman city. It was constructed from travertine blocks and featured three arches and two circular towers, situated on its eastern and western sides.

The gate, built in the late 1st century AD, features a marble inscription dedicated to Emperor Domitian by Sextus Julius Frontinus, who served as proconsul of Asia from AD 84 to 86.

Frontinus Street extending in the north-south direction. Originally 14 metres wide, it was the main axis of the city. — Frontinus Street extended in the north-south direction. It was the main axis of the city.

The paved street was 14 m wide and had an elevated pavement. A long drain covered with monolithic slabs ran in the middle of the street. On both sides of the impressive street with the double colonnade there were houses and shops with continuous Doric facades. — Frontinus Street was a paved street 14 m wide with an elevated pavement. It was lined with a double Doric colonnade and shops.

Immediately after the gate of Frontinus the public latrines were found, dating from the end of the 1st century AD — The public latrine along Frontinus Street. The room was divided longitudinally by a row of columns that supported a roof composed of travertine blocks.

The room had two wings divided by a row of monolithic Doric columns supporting the big roof from travertine slabs. A drain was connected with the conduit of Frontinus Street. The niches for the seats are still preserved peripherally on the walls. — The latrine, dating back to the end of the 1st century AD, had two wings divided by a row of monolithic Doric columns that supported the roof.

The monumental North Byzantine Gate built in the late 4th century AD and early 5th century AD. — The monumental North Byzantine Gate was built in the late 4th and early 5th centuries AD. It formed part of the fortification system and the entrance to the Byzantine city.

The Nymphaeum of the Tritons, a monumental fountain built during the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235 AD) as the inscription on the architrave block attests. — The Nymphaeum of the Tritons was a monumental fountain built during the reign of Alexander Severus (AD 222-235), as attested by the inscription on the architrave block.

The Nymphaeum of the Tritons included a reservoir 70 m long. xcavations at the monument started in 1993 and brought to light the marble architectural members and the figures of the relief decoration, such as the Tritons, Erotes and dolphins. — The Nymphaeum of the Tritons included a reservoir 70 m long. Excavations at the monument began in 1993 and revealed the marble architectural members and the figures of the relief decoration, including Tritons, Erotes, and dolphins.

The Roman theatre, built in the 2nd century AD under Hadrian on the ruins of an earlier theatre, later renovated under Septimius Severus. — The Roman Theatre was built in the 2nd century AD under Hadrian during a period of extensive rebuilding following the devastating earthquake of AD 60. It was later renovated under Septimius Severus. The theatre underwent important restorations between 2004 and 2014.

The theatre was 91 m wide with its cavea of 50 rows of seats, one diazoma, a semicircular Royal Box, and a vomitorium on either side. — The theatre was 91 m wide and had forty-five rows of seats separated by two diazomata and a vomitorium on either side. A semicircular marble tribunalia reserved for priests, dignitaries and honoured guests dominates the centre of the lower cavea. The cavea could accommodate approximately 15,000 people.

During the reign of Severus at the beginning of the 3rd century, the old scaenae frons was replaced by a new, more monumental one, organised on three storeys and flanked by two imposing side entry buildings. Sculptural reliefs displaying mythological subjects were placed on the different storeys, while dedicatory inscriptions ran along the entablatures.

Emperor Septimius Severus is shown in a procession with his family and the gods. A dedicatory inscription running along the entablature mentions the emperor Severus, during whose reign the old scaenae frons was replaced by a new, more monumental one.

Detail of the stage building with a statue placed between the niche and relief depicting a hunting scene from the Artemis cycle frieze. — Detail of the stage building with a statue placed between the niche and a frieze with reliefs depicting hunting scenes from the Artemis cycle.

Statues of Artemis, Leto and Apollo, from the Roman theatre, end of 2nd century AD. — Statues of Artemis, Leto, and Apollo, from the Roman theatre, dating to the end of the 2nd century AD.

The west-side of the Agora built in the 2nd century AD during the reign of Hadrian. — The western side of the Agora was built in the 2nd century AD during the reign of Hadrian. It was the commercial centre of the city. The Agora was surrounded by marble porticoes with Ionic columns at the front and Corinthian columns in its interior.

The eastern basilica-stoa of the Agora built in the 2nd century AD, it was a two-story structure and had a two-story Ionic facade. — The eastern basilica-stoa of the Agora. It was a two-story structure with an Ionic facade.

The Temple of Apollo built in the 3rd century AD using stone blocks from the older temple. — The Temple of Apollo was built in the 3rd century AD using stone blocks from the older temple. The temple’s front, approached by a flight of steps, stood on a podium approximately 2 meters high. It contained a pronaos and cella and had a row of columns, probably six, on the front only.

The Plutonium (Pluto's Gate), a sacred cave believed to be an entrance to the underworld and the oldest local sanctuary. — Adjoining the Temple of Apollo is the Plutonium (Pluto’s Gate), a sacred cave believed to be an entrance to the underworld. It is the oldest local sanctuary, and the site was fully functional until the 4th century AD, but remained a place of sporadic visitation by visitors for the next two centuries.

“This space is full of a vapor so misty and dense that one can scarcely see the ground…[…] Any animal that passes inside meets instant death” Strabo (Geography 13.4.14)

This digital reconstruction of the Plutonium shows the entire site. Credit: Francesco D'Andria — This digital reconstruction of the Plutonium shows the entire site. Credit: Francesco D’Andria
The cave emitted poisonous vapours in ancient times and still does! Behind the 3 square metres (32 sq ft) roofed chamber is a deep cleft in the rock, through which fast-flowing hot water passes while releasing a sharp-smelling gas.

The Temple Nymphaeum, a two-story fountain with a U-shaped plan and two wings enclosing the large basin, 3rd century AD. — The Temple Nymphaeum, built in the 3rd century AD, was a two-story fountain with a U-shaped plan, featuring two wings that enclosed a large basin. Statues filled the niches in the walls.

The Cathedral was one of the principal buildings of the Christian city. It dates to the 1st half of the 6th century AD. The Cathedral consisted of three aisles, divided by two rows of columns surmounted by capitals.

The bridge and flight of stairs built in the late 4th century AD in order to reach the hill of the Sanctuary of St. Philip. — The bridge and flight of stairs were built in the late 4th century AD to access the hill of the Sanctuary of St. Philip.

The Martyrium of St. Philip is a church with an octagonal core, built in the 5th century AD, on the summit of a hill outside the walls in the northern part of the city. Philip the Apostle is said to have been martyred in Hierapolis in AD 80 by being crucified upside-down or by being hung upside-down by his ankles from a tree.

Christian symbol over the arches of the Martyrium of St. Philip.

The Tomb of Philip the Apostle dates to the 1st century AD. It has a facade made of travertine blocks. However, the remains of the apostle Philip are no longer in the tomb.

The remains of the Church of the Sepulchre, a threenaved church brought to light in 2011. — The remains of the Church of the Sepulchre, a three-nave church brought to light in 2011.

The Roman Bath, one of the biggest buildings of Hierapolis antique city, has been used as the site of the Hierapolis Archaeology Museum since 1984. — The Roman Baths. The building has been used as the site of the Hierapolis Archaeology Museum since 1984.

The hot springs and travertines are terraces of carbonate minerals left by the flowing water.

Links:

Bibliography:

D’Andria, F . (2003): Hierapolis of Frigia. An archaeological guide. Istanbul
Erdal Yazıcı, Hierapolis Pamukkale Laodicea and City Surrounding (Uranus, 2014)

January 21, 2017July 6, 2025 by followinghadrian Categories: Phrygia, TurkeyTags: Byzantine, Phrygia 3 Comments

Laodicea on the Lycus (Latin: Laodicea ad Lycum) is an ancient city located in present-day western Turkey, near the modern town of Denizli. Founded in the 3rd century BC along the river Lycus by Seleucid King Antiochus II, the city was named in honour of his wife, Laodice. It became one of the most important and prosperous commercial centres in Asia Minor, situated on the trade route from the East, and was well-known for its woollen and cotton textiles. Laodicea is mentioned as one of the Seven Churches in the Book of Revelation (1:11, 3:14-22) and is also referenced in Paul’s letter to the Colossians (4:16). In 2013, the site was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage Tentative List.

Coordinates: 37° 50′ 9″ N, 29° 6′ 27″ E

Laodicea was built on a high plateau overlooking the Lycus River Valley and covered more than five square kilometres. Excavations have revealed that the town was continuously inhabited from the Chalcolithic Period (around 5500 BC) until the 7th century AD. The settlement was originally known as Rhoas (located on Asopos Hill), then as Diopolis (meaning City of Zeus), and finally as Laodicea (Laodikeia). In 188 BC, the city became part of the Kingdom of Pergamon and later came under Roman control in 133 BC when the last king of Pergamon, Attalus III, bequeathed his entire empire to Rome. Cicero, the renowned Roman orator and statesman, served as the governor of the province, primarily residing in Laodicea. In 60 BC, during Nero’s reign, the city was devastated by a powerful earthquake but was subsequently rebuilt. Laodicea experienced a resurgence during the early 2nd century AD and once again in the 3rd century AD, under the rule of Roman emperors Hadrian and Caracalla.

Laodicea became an important commercial centre thanks to its location on the crossroads of major trade routes: north-south between Sardis and Perga and east-west from the Euphrates to Ephesus. The most important trade was textiles. Besides, marble, grain and livestock commerce also provided an essential income to the city. The land surrounding Laodicea was fertile, providing excellent pastures for large flocks of sheep.

The city gained prominence as a Christian centre and as a place of religious pilgrimage in the Early Byzantine Period. Extant churches among the ruins date from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD. In 2010, a well-preserved church built during the reign of Constantine the Great was discovered using ground-penetrating radar. The excavations and restorations of this large basilica have been nearly completed over the past two years. By the end of the 5th century AD, a powerful earthquake devastated Laodicea, leading to a decline in its importance. The city was never rebuilt, and its inhabitants relocated to nearby cities such as Denizli.

Today, Laodicea boasts impressive remains of the ancient city, including two theatres, the biggest stadium of Anatolia, four bath complexes, five agoras, five nymphaea, temples, churches and monumental colonnaded streets. Over the past seven years, excavation work in the ancient city has uncovered approximately 2,300 artefacts, including the Laodicean Church, the monumental columns of the Sacred Agora, and a marble block inscribed with a “water law” that dates back to AD 114. Restoration of the Western (Hellenistic) Theatre is currently in progress and is expected to be completed by the end of 2020. Additionally, a three-meter-high statue of Emperor Trajan was discovered in 2019. The statue depicts Trajan in full military regalia, towering over a much smaller figure of a prisoner.