Hegra

Hegra, also known as Al-Hijr or Mada’in Salih, is one of the most significant archaeological sites in northwestern Saudi Arabia. It is located north of AlUla and the ancient capital of the Dadanite and Lihyanite Kingdoms at Dadan. Surrounded by vast desert plains and impressive sandstone cliffs, Hegra is famous for its monumental Nabataean tombs, which are intricately carved into the rock. Once a thriving city during the Nabataean Kingdom, Hegra was the second most important city after Petra. The Nabataeans, originally a nomadic Arab tribe, flourished between the 4th century BC and the 2nd century AD by controlling trade routes that connected southern Arabia to the Mediterranean.

Coordinates: 26° 47′ 30″ N , 37° 57′ 10″ E

Archaeological evidence indicates that the Hegra region was inhabited long before the Nabataean period. Bronze Age funerary structures and early inscriptions suggest human activity in the area as early as the 3rd to 2nd millennium BC. The earliest known inhabitants of Hegra were the Lihyanites, who established the site as a trading station along important north-south caravan routes. The arrival of the Nabataeans in the 1st century BC marked a significant transformation for Hegra, turning it into a prosperous urban centre. As skilled traders and expert hydraulic engineers, the Nabataeans developed advanced water management systems, establishing Hegra as a key hub along caravan routes connecting Arabia with the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. During this period, particularly under the rule of Aretas IV (9 BC – AD 40), the city flourished, covering an area of 1,500 hectares. It featured a sophisticated network of wells that supported agriculture in the desert, and its inhabitants created impressive rock-cut tomb façades.

Carved from towering, honey-coloured rocks that rise from sunbaked sands, the tombs form a necropolis surrounding Hegra’s city centre. Little of the mud-brick architecture of the walled city remains, but the tombs have remarkably withstood centuries of harsh sunlight and erosion. More than 130 surviving wells, originally established by the Nabataeans, demonstrate their expertise in water management. Most of the tombs feature intricately decorated façades, providing insight into the relationships that this Arab tribal society had with other cultures, until it lost its independence to Rome in AD 106.

All the tombs (111 in total, 94 of which are decorated) date back from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, and many display carvings of eagles, mythological figures, snakes, and sphinxes. More than 30 of Hegra’s tomb façades bear inscriptions etched in the rock. They are legal texts that list the owners’ names and, sometimes, their roles in the community. They are written in the Nabataean script, a variety of Aramaic that later developed into Arabic. Some tombs serve as final resting places for high-ranking officers and their families, whose inscriptions indicate that they carried Roman military titles such as prefect and centurion into the afterlife. In addition to the tombs, chambers, shrines, niches, and other unique structures have survived.

In AD 106, the Roman Empire annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, incorporating the city of Hegra into the province of Arabia Petraea. Evidence of Roman military presence in Hegra is found in the epigraphic record. A Greek inscription refers to a painter associated with the Legio III Cyrenaica, while Greek graffiti created by soldiers from the Ala Getulorum and Ala Dromedariorum can be seen on the rocks along the ancient north-south trade route that passes by Hegra. Additionally, a monumental Latin inscription, discovered in 2003 and dated to AD 175–177, mentions the restoration of a monument, likely the city wall, with the assistance of two centurions from the Legio III Cyrenaica (source).

Latin inscription commemorating major restoration work on a rampart (defence wall) overseen by two centurions of the Third Cyrenaic Legion. Dated AD 175-177, moved and reused in the wall of a house. AE 2004, 1620

The city was not truly Romanised, however, and no forums, theatres or paved roads have been identified there. The city was primarily a military outpost. With its ramparts and many wells, it was an ideal base for the garrison guarding the border and the inland route between Syria and southern Arabia. The archaeological excavations of the last ten years have uncovered a Roman camp with baths, built in the 2nd century AD and abandoned in the 4th century AD, and a gate from the Nabataean rampart, reconstructed by the Roman army between AD 170 and 220.

By the early Islamic period, Hegra had largely been abandoned, leaving its grand façades and silent streets to the desert landscape. European explorers in the 19th century renewed scholarly interest in Hegra, and systematic archaeological research throughout the 20th and 21st centuries has greatly expanded understanding of the site. In 2008, Hegra was designated Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site, and ongoing conservation efforts continue to shed new light on this extraordinary crossroads of ancient civilisations.

The main archaeological sites in Hegra include:

The settlement area dedicated to daily life, conveniently located in the centre of Hegra, a 50-hectare site surrounded by a defensive wall and dotted with residential buildings (not accessible to the general public)
Jabal Ithlib and Ith 78, the worship area, located to the east of Hegra
The burial area where the iconic monumental tombs were carved into many large rocks (Jabal Banat, Jabal al-Mahjar, Al-Khuraymat, Al-Jadidah, Jabal al-Ahmar). There’s an interactive tomb map online that lets you zoom into each necropolis and click individual tombs (link). Not all necropoises are accessible to the general public.
The agricultural oasis, which included 130 wells, scattered in the western, northwestern and northern parts of Hegra (not accessible to the general public)

View towards the Sulaymiyya, Jabal al-Mahjar and Jabal Banat necropolises.

The tombs of Hegra are distinguished by the variety of their decorations and architectural structures, reflecting the social prestige of Nabataean families. Among the main types identified are:

Proto-Hegra Type 1 (approx. 24 tombs): Features pilasters, an Egyptian-style cornice (entablature), and two symmetrical half-crowsteps crowning the facade.
Proto-Hegra Type 2 (approx. 12 tombs): Similar to Type 1 but includes an entablature enriched by a frieze.
Hegra Type Tombs (approx. 15 tombs): Characterised by two entablatures separated by an attic.
Crowstep Tombs (One/Two Rows): Tombs featuring one row (12) or two rows (14) of stepped merlons at the top.
Half-Crowstep Tombs (8 tombs): A cornice formed by two half-crowsteps on an Egyptian-style entablature.
Arched Tombs: A unique, rare type using an arch as a crowning element.
Simple Facades: Undecorated or incomplete tombs.

Funeral practices in Hegra followed a carefully structured Nabataean ritual that began at the home of the deceased and ended in a rock-cut tomb. After death, a necklace of fresh dates was placed around the neck, and the body, naked or nearly naked, was wrapped in several successive shrouds. First, it was enveloped in a red-dyed wool shroud, then in an undyed linen shroud coated with a mixture of vegetable oils and resins, and finally in a coarser linen shroud that absorbed additional resins. These layers were secured with textile ties and enclosed in a leather shroud made from stitched pieces, with a funerary mask placed over the face. The prepared body was then carried, likely in procession with family members, to the tomb, where it was laid in the burial chamber. After the ceremony, the tomb was sealed with a wooden door or stacked stone blocks, marking the conclusion of the funerary rite.

Suggested reconstruction of an inhumation.

Archaeologists investigating the tombs carved into the Jabal Ahmar necropolis unearthed a nearly complete skeleton of a Nabataean woman in tomb IGN 117. The tomb, containing the remains of as many as 80 individuals, bore an inscription, dated to AD 60/61, identifying it as belonging to “Hinat, daughter of Wahbu,” who had built it for herself and her descendants. Analysis of her bones showed she was a woman of about 40–50 years of age and roughly 1.6 meters tall, and her burial suggested she was of medium social status. Using the well-preserved skull and modern forensic and 3D reconstruction techniques, scientists have been able to create a facial approximation of Hinat, offering a rare and tangible glimpse of an individual from Nabataean society two millennia ago.

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Qasr al Farid

Qasr al Farid, also known as The Tomb of Lihyan Son of Kuza, is a 1st-century AD tomb carved into a single huge rock. It is the most famous and the largest tomb in Hegra. The tomb is an iconic example of Nabataean funerary architecture and stands isolated. It is carved into a massif about 23 metres high and 18 metres wide, with the access platform raised approximately 4 metres above ground level.

The style of Qasr al-Farid is known to archaeologists as the “Hegra style,” but Qasr al-Farid is unique in that it is the only one with four large pilasters decorating the façade.

A triangular pediment, resting on two pilasters and topped by a single griffin statue, frames the entrance of Qasr al-Farid, above which is a plaque with a short Nabataean inscription stating that this tomb was carved for Lihyan, Son of Kuza.

The very bottom of the façade of Qasr al-Farid was never completed.

The Jabal Banat necropolis

The Jabal Banat necropolis is one of the most striking burial clusters at Hegra. It consists of 31 Nabatean tombs dating from AD 1 to 58 (Tomb IGN17 to Tomb IGN45). The tombs include fine inscriptions about the eminent figures for whom they were intended and decorations such as birds, monsters, and human faces. The largest among them is IGN 20 (16m high).

Tomb 21, Tomb of Arus son of Farwan, of the Hegra Style. According to the Nabataean inscription above the doorway, this tomb was carved by three masons: Aftah ibn Abd’Obodat, Wahbu ibn Afsa, and Huru. It was created for Arus ibn Farwan and his extended family. The inscription indicates that the tomb was completed in the 36th year of King Aretas IV Philopatris’s reign, which corresponds to AD 28.

Tomb 24, Tomb of ‘Abd ‘Obodat son of Aribes, featuring two half-crowsteps on a plain background, an Egyptian entablature composed of a cornice, a plain frieze, and an Ionic entablature with cornice and plain architrave.

Tomb 24 is the smallest of the series of grand facades in the Jabal Banat necropolis. The triangular pediment above the doorway is richly decorated and topped by an eagle statue and two urns.

The interior of Tomb 24 with grave niches.

Tomb 29, Tomb of Wushuh daughter of Bagrah. The facade features five crowsteps and two half-crowsteps, followed by an Egyptian entablature with a cornice and a plain double-register architrave, supported by angular pilasters with pseudo-Doric capitals and plain shafts. In the centre of the facade, there is a cartouche with an inscription in Nabataean characters.

Tomb 30 belongs to the Proto-Hegra 1 type and is dated to AD 35. The upper part of the facade features two typical 5-step half-crowsteps, though only 2 steps on the left and 3 on the right are partially visible. These rest on an Egyptian entablature consisting of a cornice with torus moulding and an architrave.

The facade of Tomb 30 is decorated with a face sculpture flanked by two snakes. The inscription on the architrave is not in a cartouche but is engraved directly on the surface above the left of the doorway.

Tomb 37, Tomb of Aftah, belonging to the single-row crowsteps type. The facade is rich in decorative elements, including pseudo-Doric capitals on the corner pilasters and a unique entrance decoration featuring a central rosette and two lion figures in profile.

The Jabal Banat necropolis with some Nabataean reenactors.

Tombs 39 and 40, two well-preserved tombs with medium-sized façades belonging to the proto-Hegra type 1.

Tomb 39, Tomb of Kamkam daughter of Wa’ilat, the oldest dated tomb in Hegra. The facade belongs to the type with two rows of crowsteps.

Tomb 42, belonging to the Proto-Hegra Type 2. The upper part of the façade features typical half-crowsteps, with an Egyptian entablature below consisting of a cornice and architrave, and an Ionic entablature defined by a cornice and frieze.

Tomb 44, Tomb of Kahlan the Physician, belonging to the Proto-Hegra type. It is dated AD 26/27.

The entrance to Tomb 44 is topped by a triangular pediment featuring a tympanum decorated with a bearded face with large, prominent eyes and an open mouth displaying teeth, flanked by two snakes on either side. This figure is often interpreted as either Humbaba or the god Bès. Completing the design are three acroteria: a central eagle with outstretched wings and two vases on the sides.

Tomb 45, Tomb of the Governor ‘Eidu son of ‘Ubayd, belonging to the Proto-Hegra 2 type.

The entrance façade of Tomb 45 is surmounted by a triangular pediment and tympanum decorated with a face with round eyes and a slightly open mouth, flanked by two snakes, interpreted as a representation of Medusa. The pediment is accompanied by three acroteria: a central eagle with spread wings and two lateral vases.

View towards the Jabal Banat necropolis.

The Jabal al-Ahmar necropolis

The Jabal al-Ahmar Necropolis consists of twenty-two tombs, numbered from IGN111 to IGN130.1, spread across two sectors and divided into three rocky outcrops, some of which have recently been uncovered. The remains of a 2,000-year-old Nabatean woman named Hinat were excavated from one of these tombs (read more here).

View of the eastern side of Jabal al-Ahmar Necropolis with Tombs 114 to 119.

Tombs 117, 118 and 119. Tomb 117 (left) is the Tomb of Hinat daughter of Wahbu, and features two rows of crowsteps. The tomb was constructed for a woman named Hīnat and her descendants. According to the inscription on the facade, it was carved in AD 61, i.e. the 21st year of the reign of King Malichus II.

Tombs 118, 119 and 120. Tomb 118 (left) The facade, rising about 10 meters, features two half-crowsteps, an Egyptian entablature, and decorative rosettes.

Tombs 118, 119, 120 and 121. Tomb 120 (Tomb of Taymuallahi, son of Hamala) and Tomb 121 (Tomb of Sukaynat, daughter of Murrah) are similar and follow a simple style, with a double row of Merlons on the facades. However, tomb 121 is distinguished by a single rosette carving between the two rows of merlons and by a well-preserved inscription.

Jabal Ithlib

Jabal Ithlib, located northeast of Hegra, features a complex of rock-cut structures that includes two triclinia, twenty-one sanctuaries, niches, and basins. This complex is not a necropolis; rather, it serves as a caravanserai and an entry point for caravans travelling to the necropolises and residential areas. The Ith20 triclinium (also known as IGN16 or Diwan) is situated at the entrance of the canyon in the western sector of the Ithlib massif, while the second, smaller triclinium is located further south within the massif.

The Siq al-Hijr, a natural gorge adapted by the Nabataeans with carved niches, benches, and inscriptions dedicated to deities such as Dushara.

Niche along the side of the Siq al-Hijr.

Remains of a building and niches inside Jabal Ithlib.

Niche along the side of the Siq inside Jabal Ithlib.

The Diwan inside Jabal Ithlib, a large triclinium probably used for sacred banquets.

Ancient rock art with camels and human figures, along with early Islamic inscriptions, in Jabal Ithlib.

Links:

Hegra Conservation Project

February 3, 2026 by followinghadrian Categories: ArabiaTags: Hegra, Mada'in Salih, Nabataean, Nabataean Kingdom, Saudi Arabia Leave a comment

Sagalassos

The ancient city of Sagalassos, located in southwestern Turkey, is situated 109 kilometres north of Antalya, near the town of Ağlasun in Burdur Province. The ruins are located on the southern slopes of the Ağlasun Mountains, part of the Western Taurus range, at an altitude of approximately 1,490-1,600 meters. Its strategic location and access to water sources contributed to the city’s prosperity and made it a natural stronghold. Sagalassos gained prominence after being conquered by Alexander the Great in 334 BC, eventually becoming an important city within the Seleucid Kingdom and later the Kingdom of Pergamon. During the Roman Empire, it experienced a period of significant prosperity, characterised by extensive construction and cultural development. Largely forgotten until its rediscovery in the 17th century, it has since been the subject of various archaeological studies and excavations that have revealed its historical significance.

Coordinates: 37° 40′ 41″ N, 30° 31′ 10″ E

Sagalassos has a rich history that extends deep into prehistory. Human activity in the area dates back to around 10,000 BC, with permanent settlements appearing in the Late Neolithic by approximately 6,500 BC. These early communities practised agriculture, produced ceramic wares, and formed networks of small settlements, each controlling its own territory. Over time, the region experienced waves of cultural and political change, coming under the influence of Indo-European groups such as the Hittites and Luwians, then the Phrygians and Lydians, and eventually the Persians. Together, these phases shaped the early foundations of what would later become Sagalassos.

From the 6th century BC onward, the city increasingly absorbed Greek cultural influences. This process accelerated after the campaigns of Alexander the Great and continued through the Hellenistic and early Roman periods. Sagalassos developed into a true polis, adopting the political and urban characteristics of ancient Greek city-states, often more rapidly than neighbouring settlements in Pisidia. By this time, it had established itself as an important regional centre.

Site plan of Sagalassos: (1) Alexander’s Hill; (2) Temple of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius; (3) Temple of Apollo Klarios (source)

The Roman era marked the height of Sagalassos’ prosperity. In 25 BC, Augustus incorporated the kingdom of Galatia, including Pisidia, into the Roman Empire. During his reign, Sagalassos underwent a complete metamorphosis. In addition, political stability, economic reforms, improved infrastructure, and favourable climatic conditions encouraged agricultural expansion and population growth. The city entered a golden age in the 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD, particularly under Hadrian. The Emperor declared Sagalassos the official centre of the imperial cult for the sub-province of Pisidia. This launched the city’s “golden age” and a period of intensive construction. Hadrian also gave Sagalassos the honorary title of “first city of Pisidia, friend and ally of the Roman” which was proudly displayed on the city’s 3rd-century AD coinage (RPC IX, 945).

Colossal portrait head, belonging to an acrolithic statue of Hadrian, sculpted c. AD 120–125 and at that time perhaps displayed in the “marble room” of the Imperial Baths.

Decline came gradually rather than abruptly. A series of earthquakes in the 6th and early 6th centuries, followed by the devastating plague of AD 541–542, severely weakened the city. Although Sagalassos remained inhabited for centuries afterwards, urban life diminished as the population increasingly relied on agriculture. After centuries of abandonment, Sagalassos was rediscovered in 1706, though it faded in and out of scholarly attention until the 19th century, when its identification as the ancient city of Sagalassos was confirmed in 1824 by Francis Vyvyan Jago Arundell, a British clergyman and antiquarian. Systematic archaeological research at Sagalassos began in 1990 when the late Marc Waelkens from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium obtained full excavation rights.

Waelkens, a Belgian archaeologist, became director of the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project in 1990 after first visiting the site in the early 1980s. He launched large-scale excavations that would redefine the understanding of the city and its surrounding landscape. Waelkens championed a strongly interdisciplinary approach, bringing together specialists from a wide range of scientific fields to study not only monumental architecture but also environmental data, material culture, and everyday life. Under his leadership, Sagalassos became a model for modern archaeological research, demonstrating how a city’s history can be reconstructed in depth by integrating archaeology, natural sciences, and historical analysis.

Many of the remarkable statues and artefacts uncovered during these excavations are now preserved and displayed in the Burdur Museum (although Hadrian’s portrait is now in the Istanbul Airport Museum).